GOVT. COLLEGE, LBBR^RY
KOTA (Raj.)
Students can retain library books only for two
weeks at the most.
BORROWER'S
No.
DUE DTATE
SIGNATURE
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
and
WHO’S WHO
195T
CHECKED 2 2 APR 1359
By
S. C. SARKAR
ry
Author of Book of General Knowledge, Notable Indian Trials,
Constitution of India etc.
JUBILEE EDITION
25th year of Issue
M. C. SABKAR & SONS Private ITD
\A, BANKIM CHATTERJEE STREET, CALCUTTA— 12
Herbert College Library
KOTAH.
Qass No
Book Mo
Accession No,
ssM.
j. aper CoT«r Rs. 4-50
Cloth Cover Ks. 5’50
Published by S. Sarhar, JI. C. Sarlcar & Sons Private Ltd. ; 14 Banki®
Chatterjee St,, Calcutta-12.
Pormes 1— 4o and A. — D •pTinted by LababraaTk Sil at the Imperial
Art Cottage, Calcutta-G and Formes 4G — 52 printed by Brojendra
Kishore Sen at Modem India Press, 7 IVellington Square, Calcutta-l*
PREFACE
This is the jubilee edition of the Hindustan Year-Book
which was started in 1933 in a small pamplet form. It was
then our purpose and hope to develop this Year Book into an
authoritative reference book. We think we have succeeded
in our efforts to produce an information book which gives a
complete record of the world progress in every field year by
year.
As in previous years, new features have been added,
such as, Atomic Energy in India, Reorganisation of States,
Indian Elections 1957, State in Public Affairs, Tourism in
India, Mineral Oil of India etc etc. Existing chapters have
been thoroughly revised with additional new facts. The
Government Departments have substantially helped us in
more than one ways, by supplying latest materials for
which we convey our sincere thanks.
Once again we invite readers to submit comments and
to send any additions or corrections,
S. C. Sarkar.
AN ELECTION SUPPLEMENT
An election supplement of the Hindustan Year Book
containing election results and names of Ministers
will be issued as soon as Ministries are formed. This
will be supplied free to all purchasers of the
Year Book —
Vide details at the end of the book.
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cells xrhich make up the
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Often. Itching, Scabies. 01-
cers, Eerema. Boils. P^hes.
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plicated diseases beset upon
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miserable.
SARIBADI salsa bro-l
pQted for decades as the
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It clears the bowels rego«
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other diseases sriaog out
of blood impuxiues, ioao«
op the liver, increases tbt
appetite and thus helps
formation of new, rich
blood which ensures a
sturdy health, for you-
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CONTENTS
INDIA AT A GLANCE
Area — ^Physical Division — Climate and Rainfall — Soil of India — States
of India — Coast Line — ^Lan^ages — ^River Systems — ^Ports — ^People —
Religions — ^Indian Races — Minerals — ^Agriculture — ^Animals — Livestock
— ^Forests — ^Plag . . . . . . . . 1 — 10
INDIAN FACTS IN A NUTSHELL
General — Population — Agriculture — ^Minerals — ^Trade and Industries
— Public Health & Hygiene . . . . . . 11 — 14
INDIAN INFORMATION
Cities of India — ^Ten Big Cities of India — ^Indian Bridges — Distances
by Rail — ^National Parks & Game Sanctuaries — Ten Highest Peaks of
Himalayas — Attempts on Everest & Kattchenjunga — Conquest of
Major Himalayan Peaks — ^Highest Indian Stuctures — Old & New
Names of Places — Indian Fellows (5f the Royal Society — Indians in the
British Parliament — Indian Privy Councillors — ^Indian Peer of the
British Realm — ^Nobel Prize Winners — Lenin Peace Prize — ^Indian
Winners of Victoria Cross — Bharat Ratna — ^Padma Vibhushan —
Winners of Param Vir Chakra — Governor-Generals of Indian Union —
President, Indian Union — Indian Parliament — Speaker, Constituent
Assembly of India — ^Indian National Confess Presidents — ^Indian
Chronolo^ — ^Notable Indians — First in India — First Beginnings in
India — First among Indians — Hill Stations — Places of Interest in India
— ^Architectural & Historical Landmarks, Hindu & Buddhist —
Muslim . . . . . . . . 16 — 39
THE CALENDAR
Indian Calendar — Mahoraedan Calendar — ^Modern Calendar — Jewish
Calendar — ^Zoroastian Calendar — Buddhist Calendar — Hindu Calendar
— Names of Months — Year — ^Time — ^Holidays — ^NEW INDIAN
STATES , . . . . . . • 40—48
ASTRONONOMICAL DATA
Solar System — Sun — ^Earth — Moon — Other Planets — Asteroids — Co-
mets — Meteors — Constellations— Satellites — Stars — Polar Auroras —
Milky Way — ^Atmosphere . . . . . . 49 — 62
ANTHROPOLOGICAL INFORMATION
Races of Mankind — Race a Social Myth — ^Meaning of Race-— Pure
Race — Race Superiority — Classification of Mankind — Distribution of
Basic Stock — Stages of Civilization — ^Pre-hlstoric Man . . 63 — 66
5
Regular Cargo Service
between
INDIA— U. K.— CONTINENT .
and
Round the coast of India, Ceylon & Pakistan
F L
INDIAN TRADER
INDIAN PIONEER
INDIAN SHIPPcR
INDIAN EXPORTER
INDIAN ENDEAVOUR
INDIAN COMMERCE
E E T
S. S. IND'AN
S. S. INDIAN
S. S. INDIAN
S. S, INDIAN
S. S. INDIAN
S. S. INDIAN
navigator
MERCHANT
reliance
RENOWN
RESOURCE
resolve
Wonogfng Agents ;
lONEL EDWARDS (PRIVATE) LIMITED.
'•INDIA STEAMSHItA HOUSE"
, OLD COURT HOUSE STREET ;; CALCUTTA-1
Office and Agencies at Principal Ports.
vil
GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION
Area of the Continents — EWorld Dimensions — Longest Rivers — Oceans
and Seas — Highest Mt. Peaks — Highest and lowest Elevations of
the World — Lakes — ^Volcanoes — The Largest Islands — Deserts —
Geographical Surnames — Longest Tunnels — Mountain Passes — Fam-
ous Caves & Caverns — Ship Canals — Geographical Record-breakers —
World Extremes of Climate — Waterfalls — Polar Records — First
Ascents of Mountains — ^Famous Structures — NEW COINS 57—66
GENERAL INFORMATION
Longest Ry. Station Platforms — Longest Bridges — Notable Teles-
copes — Libraries of the World — Largest Bells — Tall Buildings &
Towers — Highest & Largest Dams — World’s Greatest Reservoirs —
Longest Spans of Bridges — Biggest, Largest, Greatest, Longest —
Great Inventions — Discoveries & Inventions in Electricity — Theories
Nobel Prizes — Indian Stones & Planetary Actions — Birth Stones —
Animal & Bird Records — Period of Gestation of Various Animals —
Speeds — Heights & Depths — Largest Ships — Atlantic Blue Riband —
Record Flights & Jumps — Decorations & Medals — National & State
Flowers . . . . . . , . . 67 — 84
WORLD GAZETTEER
WORLD GAZETTEER .. .. .. 85—105
POLITICAL INFORMATION
Rulers or Heads of Governments — Presidents of the TJ.S.A. — ^British
Prime Ministers — Salaries of Heads of Governments — Rulers of
France — Rulers of Germany since W. War I — Rulers of U.S.S.R. —
Political Assassinations — Famous Abdications — Flags of Countries —
Other Flags — National Day — Political Abbreviations — Names &
Colours of Flags — National Anthems — Political Parties & Groups —
Indian Political Parties — ^Political Terms — Plans, Treaties, Charters
Etc. .. .. .. .. .. 106—136
VwORLD POPULATION
Population Density of the World — Five Largest Cities — Estimates ot
Total Population — Papulation according to Religion — Largest Cities
— Birth Rates — Death ]^tes — Marriage Rates .. 137 — 140
CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
Sovereign Democratic Republic — ^Territory and Extent — Fundamental
Rights — Union Executive — Legislature-Judiciary — State Govern-
ments — Territories — States Judiciary — Relations between_ Union &
States — Election Commission — Financial & Other provisions — Trade
& Commerce — Official Language — ^Amendment of the Consti-
tution - .. .. 141—153
YOUTH CAH DO THEIR BIT . .
Q. a ^
w w
Mncli is expected of the coontr/s yooth— our '
young hopefuls, in all progressive social movements ^
they are in the forefrorit. The Railways look to ■
them for help. When they travel, they should ,
dissuade people from misusing the alarm chain.
By this simple act they v/itl help the Railv.jays
carry men and materials smoothly and will do a
great deal of good to the. country. An unnecessary ^
pull on thealarm chain causes delay, disappointment i
and, sometimes, disaster.
THE ALARM CHAIN
IS TO BE USED ONLY
IN AN EMERGENCY
^ I \
EASTERH RAHWAY* JOOTH EASTERN RAILWAY
ix
INDIAN CITIZENSHIP
By Birth — ^By Descent — By Ee^stration — By Naturalisation — By In-
corporation of Territory — Termination of Citizenship . . 154—155
CUE NATIONAL EMBLEMS & AWAEDS
National Flag — ^National Emblem — ^National Songs — ^Awards, Distinc-
tions & Titles . . . . . . . . 156 — 158
EANK & PEECEDENCE OF PEESONS 159-162
TEANSPOET & COMMUNICATIONS
Eailways in India — Beginning of Railways in India — Ry. Committees
— Administration — ^Finance — Classes of Accommodation — Freight &
Fare — Locomotive & Other Productions — ^Training Centres & Research
— Electrification — Workshops — ^Ey. Zones — Ry. Organisations — Tourist
Traffic — ^Amenities — Ry. & the Plan — ^Indian Railways 1955 — ^Ry.
Reserve Funds — Ry. Finances — Ry. Facts — Roads in India — ^Progress
— ^Administration — Central Road Fund — ^Nagpur Plan — Roads Con-
gress — Govt. Organisations — Research & Technical Training — ^Road
Transport — Ropeways — Inland Water Transport — ^Master Plan — ^Ad-
ministration — Waterway Projects — Civil Aviation — Progress — Organi-
sation — ^Training & Flying Clubs — ^Aerodromes — ^Air Traffic Control —
The Fleet — ^Night Mail — Internal Routes — External Routes — Boards
of Directors & Members — Indian Airlines Corporations — Non-Sche-
duled Airline Operators — Flying Clubs — Gliding Clubs — Foreign
Services — ^Indian Post and Telegraphs — Postal System — Progress —
Research & Postal Education — ^Telegraph Service — Telephones — Over-
seas Communications — Postal Revenue — ^Postal Expansion — ^Land-
marks — ^Postage Stamps since Independence . . . . 163 — ^203
INDIAN SHIPPING
Position of Indian Mercantile Marine — Shipping Control — Consultive
Committee of Shipping Interest — Consultive Comm, of Shipovtmers —
India’s Maritime Trade — Country Craft — Coastal & Near Trade —
Merchant Shipping — Overseas Shipping — India & Conference Lines —
Training Facilities — Crew Employment — Ship Building — Tanker Fleet
— Tonnage of Vessels — Indian Cargoes . . . . 204 — ^210
BANKS IN INDIA
Indian Banking System — Classes of Banks— Finance, Investment,
Credit Corporations — ^Reserve Bank of India — Liabilities &_Ass^s of
Reserve Bank — ^Indian Banks — State Bank of India — Joint Stock
Banks, Other Indian Scheduled Banks — ^Liabilities & Assets of other
Indian Scheduled Banks — of Foreign Scheduled Banks — Li^ilities &
Assets of Total Scheduled Banks — ^Non-Scheduled Banks — ^Liabilities
& Assets of Total Non-Scheduled Banks — Earnings & Expenses of
Cloths and Fabrics to suit any
climate and all social occasion. A boon
for the public through the excellent ser-
vice offered to our Patrons.
Call on us with no obligation
fir, Mr.
.TOWER HOUSE O CHOV/PvINCHEE SQ
CALCUTTA
U.RS
xi
Indian Non-Scheduled Banks, and of Indian Scheduled Banks — Co-
operative Banks — Liabilities and Assets of all Co-operative Banks —
Foreign Scheduled Banks — Indigenous Banks — Land Mortgage Banks
— Important Banking Developments — National Agricultural Credit
Funds — Training in Banking — Indian Joint-Stock Banks, 1955 — Post
Office Savings Bank Transactions — Number of Cheques & Amounts
Cleared, 1954 — State-wise Distribution of total Indian Jt. Stock
Banks, 1955 — Money Rates in India . . . . 211 — 230
PUBLIC FINANCE
India’s Public Finance — Allocation of Revenue — Devolution of Taxes
& Grants-in-aid — Finance Commission — Union Government Budget —
Revenue Account — Capital Account — Revenue & Expenditure of Govt,
of India, Revenue Account — Govt, of India Capital Budget — Budge-
tary 'Position ' . . . . . . . . 231 — ^236
PUBLIC DEBT
Central Govt. Debts — General — Composition of Debt — Repatriation of
Sterling Debt — Small Savings — Govt. Balances & Ways & Means Ad-
vances — Govt, of India Annual Treasury Bills — Interest-Bearing Ob-
ligations & Interest-Yielding Assets — Govt, of India Debt Position —
Central Govt. Loans — ^Principal Small Savings — Total Postal
Savings . . . . . . . . 236 — 238
STATES’ BUDGETS
Part A States, Revenue Account — General — Part B States Budget,
Revenue Account — Part C States’ Budgets — Budgetary Position, Part
A States — Budgetary Position, Part B States — Part C States — State
Govt. Loans — Consolidated Debt Position, Part A States — States Govt.
4 P.C. Loans, 1956 . . . . . . . . 239 — ^246
AGRICULTURE IN INDIA
Importance — Defects — Area & Soil — Crops — Research & Extension —
Ownership & Holdines — Agricultural Policy — Bhoodan Movement —
Soil Conservation — Marketing — Zoological & Botanical Surveys —
Food Crops — Plantation Crops — ^Fibres — Other Cash Crops — Oilseeds
— ^Production of food Grains — Other Commodities — ^Index Numbers
247—261
FISHERY IN INDIA
Inland Fishery — Sea Fishing — Refrigeration — ^Fishing Industry —
Varieties of Fishes — Fish Products — Rate of Consumption — Second
Five-Year Plan — ^Foreign Aid — ^Aquaria and Museums — Pearl Oysters
262—266
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
Cattle in India — Livestock — Key Village Plan & Other Project s —
Division of Livestock— Species of Cattle — Milk Production — ^Poultry
Balance on a bicycle
Is easily acquired. Not
so easy Is the balancing
of your bicycle accounts—
Its costs against Its
service. The extreme
care In choice of raw
materials and rigid
factory Inspection of
each component make
Sen-Raleigh bicycles
the most serviceable
with a minimum of repair
and replacement costs,
thus striking the
right balance.
XUl
— ^Provincial Distribution — Trade in Cattle — Animal Diseases
Livestock & Poultry in India . . . . , . 267 ^273
FORESTS IN INDIA
Forest Wealth of India — Forest Types of India— National Forest
Policy — Classifications of Forests — Central Board of Forestry
Afforestation & Soil Conservation — ^Administrative Set-up — Forest
Education & Eesearch — Forest Produces & Uses— Classification of
Forest Areas — Area of Forest Lands & Outturn of Forest Produce —
Classification . . . . . , , . 274 — 282
DAIRY FARMING
Milk Adulteration — ^Poor Yield — ^Low Milk Consumption — Eesearch
Associations — ^Large Scale Production — Dairy Education — Ghee Pro-
duction — Ghee Adulteration . . . . . , 283 — 286
WILD LIFE IN INDIA
Physical Eegions — ^Wild Life Preservation — ^Varieties and Description
— Problems — Bird Protection — National Parks & Sanctuaries — Zoo-
logical Gardens . . . . . . , , 287 — ^292
INDEX NUMBERS ON VARIOUS SUBJECTS
Index Numbers of Wholesale Prices — Consumer Price Index Numbers
— All India Index Numbers of Security Prices — Industrial Production
Index Numbers — ^Index Numbers of Exports & Imports — ^Wholesale
Prices Index Numbers — Index Number of Food Prices — ^Index Num-
bers of Industrial Production — Economic Indicators . . 293 — 296
SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS IN INDIA
Scientific Eesearch — Eole of India’s Scientists — International Contacts
in Science — ^Ministry of Natural Eesources & Scientific Eesearch —
Council of Scientific & Industrial Eesearch — ^Five-Year Plans —
National Laboratories — Engineering Eesearch — Medical Eesearch —
Statistical Eesearch — Meteriolo^cal Eesearch — National Eesearch
Development Corporation of India — ^Indian National Scientific Docu-
mentation Centre — Eesearch Associations by Industries — Nuclear
Eesearch — ^Atomic Eesearch — Survey of India — Anthropology in India
— Learned Societies & Eesearch Institutes . . . . 297 — 308
INDIAN MINERALS
Four Categories of India’s Mineral Eesources — ^Mines & Minerals
Conservations — Govt. Departments — Scientific Eesearch on Mines &
Minerals — Mining Education — Govt.’s Eole & Mineral Policy — Des-
cription of Minerals — Mineral Production . . . . 309 — 322
T here was not a year in which
India did not drain the Roman
Empire of a sum equivalent to
about one and a half crorcs of
rupees. Thus complained Pliny, in
the first century A. D., of Rome’s
unequal trade with India.
■Pliny’s statement tcsti&cs to the
superiority of India’s industrial skill
and commercial organisation which
had given her practically a mono-
poly of the European market in a
"vtnde range of goods. In the succeed-
ing centuries India’s prc-cmincncc
In world trade was never seriously
•challenged, until Europe forged
ahead with the advent of the
Industrial Revolution.
With a rich store of natural
resources and the traditional skill
of her workmen, now aided by
modem technology, India is 'work-
ing hard through her Five Year
Plans to regain her ancient position
of pride in the world of trade
and industry.
Founders of India’s Rubber
Industry. .
DUNLOP
Tyres: Tubes; Dunlopillot
Industrial Rubber Products
DX 467a
XV
UNITED NATIONS
Origin — ^Purposes of U.N. — Finance — Official Languages — ^Members
of the United Nations — United Nations’ Flag — ^Headquarters & Offices
■ — Organs of the U.N. — General Assembly — Security Council — Econo-
mic & Social Council — Trusteeship System — International Court of
Justice — Secretariat — Specialised Agencies of U.N. . . 323—330
SPORTS SECTION
Indian Cricket — Foreign Teams in India — Indian Teams abroad —
Official Test Matches — India’s Test Record — Cricket Championship of
India — Ranji Trophy Records — Rohinton Baria Inter-University Cric-
ket — Football ; Rovers Cup, Bombay — Durand Cup — National Football
Championship — Inter-University Football Championship — Hockey ;
Beighton Cup — Aga Khan Cup — ^Women’s National Hockey Cham-
pionship — Dhyan Chand Hockey Tournament — National Badminton
Championship — Inter-State Badminton Championship — National
Table Tennis Championship — Inter-State Table Tennis — Billiards
Championship — National Kabadi Championship — National Lawn
Tennis Championship — National Swimming Championship — National
Basketball Championship — National Volleyball Championship —
Athletic Records in India — Indian Swimming Records — Cricket — Mile
Runners — EWorld Track & Field Records — EWorld Swimming Records —
Women’s Track & Field Records — Women’s Swimming Records —
Davis Cup — Wightman Cup — Wimbledon Tennis Championship —
World Chess Championship — Boxing Champions — Modem Heavy-
Weight Champions — World Table Tennis — World Football Cup —
Asian Qudrangular Football Tournament — World Skating — Thomas
Cup — Olympic Hockey Championship — Olympic Score of Nations —
New Olympic Athletic Records — Notable World Records . . 331 — 351
AVIATION
Altitude Records — ^Endurance Flight Record — Speed Records — ^Round
the World Flight — ^Pole Flights — ^Non-Stop Long Distance Records —
Balloon Records — Aeroplanes — Sea-planes — Gliders — ^Parachute — Heli-
copter . . . . . . . . 352 — 354
INDIAN PORTS
Major & Minor Ports — Port Trusts — ^National Harbour Board —
Lighthouses — Description of Ports — Cargo Handled by Different
Ports — Traffic in Four Major Ports . . . . 355 — 362
INDIAN PRESS
Beginnings of Indian Press — Freedom of the Press — Press Laws —
Press Council — Indian Newspaper Circulation — New Development —
Indian News Agencies — Foreign Agencies — Press Commission’s Report
— Newspaper Associations — ^Books in India — Information &_ Publicity
of Central & State Govts. — ^Information Services — Publications Divi-
XVll
Bion — Advertising Consultants Branch — Research & Reference
Division — Films Division — Govt, of India Tourist Information
Offices — Foreign Information Services — Important Indian News-
papers — Press Associations — Commercial Papers— Journalism Cour-
ses — Indian News Agencies — Foreign News Agencies in India —
Language-wise Distribution of Periodicals — State-wise Distribution of
Newspapers — ^Printing Presses etc. in India . . 363 — 380
LABOUR IN INDIA
Labour Reform in India — Labour Laws — Safety and Labour Welfare
— Industrial Relations — Labour Administration — Membership of All
India Organisations — National Employment Service — India & the
I.L.O. — Central Labour Institute — Employment Exchanges — Indus-
trial Disputes in India . . . . . . . . 381 — 396
NATIONAL DEFENCE
Defence Organisation — Reorganisation Programmes — Indian Army
— ^Indian Navy — ^Indian Air Force — General Training Institutions
397—407
NATIONAL INCOME
Salient Features — Small Rise — Normal Progp'ess — ^Net Domestic Pro-
duct by Industrial origin — Shares of Govt. & Private Sections — Net
National Product at Factor cost and at Market Prices . . 407 — 410
INDIANS OVERSEAS
History of Emigration — Nature of Work — Emigration Ports — ^Unres-
tricted Migration — Ban on Entry — Indians Overseas . . 411 — 414
INDIAN CENSUS
Broad Outlines — Growth of Population — India & the World — Rural-
urban Ratio — Cities — Livelihood Patterns — Religion — Towns and
Villages — Sex Ratio — Martial Status — Future Growth — Birth Rates
& Death Rates — Age Structure — Population of Special Groups —
Expectation of Life — Beggars in India — Fertility of Indian Women
— Area & Population — Population of Cities — Population according to
Religion — Literacy in India . . . . . . 41B — 423
INDIAN ARCHAEOLOGY
Administration — Archaeological Research — Publications — ^National Ar-
chives of India — Historical Records Comm. — Training Facilities
424-426
LANGUAGES
Indo-Epropean — ^World’s Languages — Indian Languages — Speakers
of Pricipal Indian Languages — Tribal Languages — Other Indian
Languages — Principal Non-Indian Language Speakers — ^Indian Lan-
guage Speakers in States .. .. .. 427 — 437
B
TTi« joMenandj,
the rearing
breakers, the
beach— perhaps tht
bert In the worW
—the great temple
—these are
the charms oT
Pari. But nothing
Ii more pleasant
thin a stay at Part
In the South
Eastern Riiiwa/
Hotel.
excmaramiKwoKHarccHw^xr SOUTH EASTERN RAILV/AY HOTELS
mtftftAhHIRESTfUC-AAHCHI
“ * ‘ j-
isffi
the hills along the
blue ikjfllnes. the
\ wil(J beauuei
of Nature at
every corner
of the
valley, the Huadru
falls, the
charming climate.
—Ranchi It
j famous for these,
r and no less for the
exquisite cuisine
and comfort provided
by the South
Eastern Railway
Hotel.
, Ho
WD tr t„.
XIX
PUBLIC HEALTH OF INDIA
Public Health Administration — Ministry of Health — Problem of Pub-
lic Health in India — Medical & Health Education — Family Planning
— Govt. Policy towards Indigeneous Systems & Homoeopathy — Boards,
Councils etc., for Public Health — Defectives — ^Prevention & Control of
Major & Tropical Diseases — Legislative measures — India & Interna-
tional Assistance — Medical Census — ^Ten-year Health Plan — Labora-
tories, Medical Researches & Associations — ^Infant Mortality — ^Hospi-
tals and Patients — Indian Expectation of Life — Pood & Nutrition —
Medical Education . . . . . . . . 438 — 453
BROADCASTING IN INDIA
Organisation — ^A.I.R. stations — ^Promotion of Hindi — ^Revenue —
Licenses — Varied Broadcasts — ^Research — ^Transcription Service —
— AIR monitoring Service — Staff Training School — Listener Research
unit — ^Import of Radio Sets — Number of Domestic Receving Sets
454—460
INDIA’S POWER SUPPLY
Power Generation in India — ^Administration — Hydro-Power Resources
of India — Pattern of Electricity in India — State of Power Develop-
ment in India — ^Power Projects under Five-Year Plan — ^Progress of
Electricity Supply — Electric Energy Generated & Sold . . 461 — 466
INDIAN IRRIGATION
Administration — Research Work — River Valley Projects — Main Types
of Irrigation — Canals of India — Some Principal Projects — ^Power &
Irrigation Projects in the First Five-Year Plan 467 — 477
INSURANCE IN INDIA
Life Business — ^Non-Life Buisiness — Members of the Corporation —
Zonal & Divisional Offices . . . . . . 478—480
INDIAN INDUSTRY
Ministry of Commerce & Industry — Administrative Set-up — Industrial
Policy of the Govt. — Development & Control of Industries — Financial
Aid to Industry — Foreign Capital — ^Research — ^Nationalized Industries
— Fertilizer Industry — ^Aircraft Industry — Chittaranjan Locomotive
Works — National Instruments Factory — Integral Coach Factory —
Description of Indian Industries — Industrial Production . . 481 — 512
COTTAGE & SMALL SCALE INDUSTRIES
Special Cottage Industry Products of India — State Cottage
Industries . . . . • - • • 513 — 520
XXl
BHOODAN MOVEMENT
All-India Figures of Bhoodan .... . . . . 521 — 622
INDIAN EDUCATION
Educational System in India — Secondary Education Commission —
Sargent Scheme — ^Associated Bodies — Museums in India — Scientific
Research Institutes — Humanistic Institutions — First Degree Course
in Engineering & Technology . . . . . . 523 — 544
AET & LITERATURE IN INDIA
Sahitya Akadami — Sangit Natak Akadami — Lalit Kala Akadami
545—549
CINEMA IN INDIA
History of the Film Industry — ^Film Enquiry Committees — Govt, of
India’s Control — Films Division — Children’s Film — Advisory^ Board —
National Film Board — Censorship of Films — ^Taxation — Indian Film
Production To-day — Film Federation — State Awards — World Film
Production — India’s Film Industry — Foreign Feature Films in India
— Indian Feature Films — Cinema Circuits — Cinema Facts — ^Leading
Indian Producers — Film Studios in India — Associations & Unions —
Foreign Film Studios — Academy Awards — State Film Awards (India)
1955 — Czechoslovakia International Film Festival, 1956 — Cannes In-
ternational Film Festival 1956— Oscars for 1955-— British Academy
Awards, 1956— Venice Film Festival, 1956 .. ..650 — 663
INDIA’S COMMERCE
Pattern of India’s Trade — ^India’s Exchange Control — Tariff Commis-
sion — India’s Foreign Exchange Reserve — Index Numbers of Exports
& Imports — ^India’s Balance of Payments — ^India’s Foreign Trade
664—571
PROHIBITION IN INDIA
Present State — Position in the States — Prohibition Enquiry Commit-
tee’s Report . . . . . . . . 672 — 575
LAND REFORMS IN INDIA
Objective — Elimination of Intermediaries — Compensation — ^Fixation of
Rent — Fixation of Ceilings — Steps to check Fragmentation & Conso-
lidation — Census of Land-holdings — Co-operative Farming — Land for
Common Purposes — Agrarian Reforms in States . . 576 — 579
PUBLIC SERVICES IN INDIA
Examinations — All-India Services — Recruitment by Competitive Exa-
minations — Recruitment by Selection — Central Secretariat Service —
Pay & Scale . . . . . . . • 580 — 583
II
ligarsngag
Insist ®fs
CALCUTTA FAN WORIS PRIVATE LTD.
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19B, CHOWRINGHEE ROAD
CALCUTTA-IS
Telephone :23-3552 & 23-1317
xxiil
THE FIVE-YEAR PLANS
First Five-Year Plan — Objective of the Plan — Sources of Finance —
Foreign Capital — Original & Eevised Estimates — Financial Resources
of the First Five-Year Plan — Community Development Projects —
National Extension Service — Progress of Work — Second Five-Year
Plan — Objectives — Shift of Priorities — Plan Outlay & Allocations —
Structure of Economj^ — National Product by Industrial Origin 684 — 595
SOCIAL WELFARE
Conception of Welfare State — Central Social WeKare Board — Volun-
tary Social Work . . . . . . . . 596 — 598
EXTERNAL ASSISTANCE
International Bank of Reconstruction & Development — Colombo Plan
— ^The United States of America — Joint Projects — Colombo Plan — ^The
Ford Foundation — The International Bank — Norwegian Aid — Techni-
cal Assistance — U.S. Technical Co-operation — Recapitulation of Indo-
American Programme (1952-1956) — ^Indo-Norwe^an Aid Program-
me — Russian Loan — ^U.K. Loan — ^Loans from India . . 599 — 610
ATOMIC ENERGY IN INDIA
Peaceful use of Atomic Energy . . . . . . 611 — 615
CENTRAL ACTS 195 6 616-620
REORGANISATION -OF STATES
J. V. P. Report — ^Work of S. R. C. Commission — Zonal Council — High
Courts — Status of States — Territorial Councils — Delhi Corporation —
Parliamentary Members — Territories — States & Territories & their
Capitals . . . . . . . . . . 621 — 628
INDIAN ELECTIONS 1957
National Parties — ^Number of Voters — ^Expenses in Elections — ^Expen-
ses Table — Allocation of Seats in the Lok Sabha & State Assemblies
— Election Manifestos ^ . . . . . . 629 — 638
STATE IN PUBLIC AFFAIRS
Life Insurance Corporation — State Trading in India — ^The Eastern
Shipping Corporation . . . . • . 639 — 641
COMMISSIONS & COMMITTEES
Plantation Enquiry Commission’s Report — Subhas Bpse Committee —
Sanskrit Commission — Co-ordination Comm, for Public Co-operation —
Planning Commission . . . . . . . - 642 — 644
^^suhr oj. NPph/i
■^‘^ss^^fsss
XXV
AWARDS, REWARDS, PRIZES
Sangit Natak Akadami Awards 1956 — Third All-India Art Exhibition
Awards 1967 — Best Books for Children 1955-56— Sahitya Akadami
Awards, 1956 . . . . . . . . 645 — 647
TOURISM IN INDIA
Description of Indian Show Places — Govt, of India Eegional Tourist
Offices . . . . . . . . . . 648—653
INDO-PAKISTAN AFFAIRS
Agreement on Indus Water — Pakistani Claim over Chitral — Kashmir
Developments — Exodus of Hindus from Pakistan — Border Incidents —
Pakistani Debt to India — Jt. Flood Control Measures — Indo-Pakistani
Trade Pact . . . . . . . . 654 — 660
INDIA IN WORLD AFFAIRS
Yugoslavia, India & Egypt — Indo-Arab Amity — India & the Algerian
Independence Movement — ^India’s Frontier Areas — Naga Land —
Bhutan — Sikkim — Nepal — ^India & Work of Unesco — India & Disar-
mament Conference — India & the Nationalization of Suez Canal —
India & the Atomic Energy Conference — Transfer of French Settle-
ments in India — India & Developments in Hungary — India & the Co-
mmonwealth — India & the United Nations Eleventh Session — India
& Korea — India & Togoland — India & Apartheid in South Africa —
India & Korean Election — Indian Prime Minister addresses the U.N.
General Assembly — ^India & the Unesco Session . . 661 — 679
INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS
Morocco & Tunisia win Independence — Saar rejoins Germany — ^Free-
dom for Malaya — Cominform Dissolved — Algerian Independence
Movement — ^Nationalist Movements in Africa — The Union of South
Africa — Bechuanaland, Basutoland & Swaziland — Central Africa —
Kenya — Nigeria — The Gold Coast — Sierra Leone — Uganda — Events
in Cyprus — Suez Canal Nationalized — The Suez Canal Company —
Economics of the Suez Politics — London Discussions on Suez — Men-
zies Mission — Suez Canal users’ Association, — Anglo-French Aggres-
sion on Egypt — Cessation of Hostilities & International force — U.
N. force — Development in Laos — Self-Government for Somalis
— Eisenhower’s Second Term — Events in Poland & Hungary —
Hungary . . . . . . . . . . 682—712
INDIAN AFFAIRS
Kashmir Constitution — ^Portugal’s Dispute with India — ^Problems on
Naga Land— The General Election of 1957— Indo-U.S. Agreement on
Agricultural Commodities - . • • • •
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MINERAL OIL IN INDIA
Russian Oil Experts — Oil & Natural Gas Division . . 718—720
"States in india
Andhra Pradesh — Assam — West Bengal — Bihar — Bombay — Madhya
Pradesh — Madras-^Orissa — Punjab — Uttar Pradesh — Rajasthan —
^mmu & Kashmir — Mysore — Kerala — Delhi — Pondicherry — ^Himachal
^r^desh — ^Manipur — ^Tripura — Laccadive, Minicoy & Amindivi Islands
— ^Andaman & Nicobar Islands — Sikkim . . . . 722—763
STATES BORDERING INDIA
Bhutan — ^Nepal — Tibet — Portuguese India — Pakistan
763—769
GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS
Their scope and work — Ministries of Finance, Defence, Education, Irri-
gation and Power, Pood, Labour, Natural Resources, and Scientific
Research, Law, Works, Housing and Power, Production, Food, Com-
merce and Industry, Communications, External Aifairs . . 770 — 778
PARLIAMENT OF INDIA
Salaries and Allowances of Members of the Parliament of India —
Rajya Sabha Parliamentary Committees — Lok Sabha Parliamentary
Committees . . . . . . , . 778 — 780
UNION GOVERNMENT
Secretaries of the President & Prime Minister — Secretaries to the
Government of India — Tariff Commission — Supreme Court of India —
Railway Board — General Managers & Imp. Ry. Officers of Indian
I^ilways — Central Water and Power Commission — Union Public Ser-
vice Commission — Top ranking Officers of the Armed Forces — ^Impor-
tant Posts — Damodar Valley Corporation — ^Planning Corporation
781—784
INDIAN REPRESENTATIVES ABROAD
Ambassadors — ^High Commissioners — Legations — Special Missions —
Consulate Generals & Consulates — Commissions — ^Agencies 785 — 789
INDIA GOVERNMENT TRADE REPRESENTATIVES
789—791
FOREIGN DIPLOMATS IN INDIA
Ambassadors — High Commissions — ^Legations - . 791 — 793
TRADE REPRESENTATIVES OF OVERSEAS
GOVERNMENTS IN INDIA 793—795
WHO’S WHO 796-82
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INDEX
A
Abbreviations, Political .. 113
Abdications, Famous . . 110
Abyssinia (Ethiopia) 85
Academy of Hindustani &
Kamatak Music . . 530
Academy Awards . . 661
Academy (See Akadami)
Accommodation, classes of 167
Acts 1956, Central . . 616
Adult Education . . 526
Advertising Consultant’s
Branch . . 371
Aerodromes in India . . 192
Afghanistan . . 85
Aga Khan Cup . . 336
Agrarian Beforms -- 679
Agricultural Commodities
other than Foodgrains,
Production of . . 261
Agncultural Credit Funds,
National . . 227
Agricultural Policy 252
Agricultural Research 249, 304
Apiculture in India 8,247
Aircraft Industry . . 488
Air Force, Indian .. 403
Airline Corporation, Indian 194
Airline Operations, Non-
Scheduled . . 195
Airline Routes, Eictemal 193
Airline Routes, Internal . . 193
Air Reserves . . 405
Air Services, Foreign .. 196
A.I.R. Stations .. 454
NEW BRANCH SHOWROOM AT JAMSHEDPUR. PKONE-JAMSHEDPUR-BSB
Air Traffic Control . . 192 Apatite . . 321
Akadami, Lalit Kala 630, 648 Arabia . . 86
Akadami, Sahitya 630, 645 Archaeology, Dept, of . . 629
Akadami, Sangit Natak 530, 547 Archaeology, Indian . . 424
Albania . . 85 Archaeological & Historical
Alcohol Industry . . 499 Landmarks . . 36
Alfeppy . . 361 Archives of India, National 426
All India Eadio . . 454 Area & Soil . . 248
Aluminium Industry . . 497 Area of India . . 1
Andaman & Nicohar Islands 761 Argentina . . 86
Andhra . . . . 722 Art & Literature . . 645
Andorra . . 85 Asbestos . . 321
Animal & Bird Eecords . . 82 Ascents of Mountains, First 63
Animal Husbandry . . 267 Asiatic Society of Bengal 307
Animal Products . . 272 Assam . . 724
Animals of India . . 8 Assassinations, Political . . 109
Anthems, National . . 114 Assets & Obligations, Int. —
Anthropological Dept. . . 629 Bearing . . 237
Anthropological Information 63 Asteroids . . 50
Anthropology in India . . 307 Astronomical Data . . 49
Antibiotics, Hindustan . . 490 Athletic Eecords in India 338
Antimony . . 321 Atmosphere . • 52
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xxxiii
Atomic Energy, Dept, of
Atomic Energy in India
Atomic Energy, Peaceful
use of
Atomic Research
Australia
Austria
Audio-Visual Education
Automobile Industry
Aviation in India, Civil
Aviation ; Records, Types
„ 352, 353,
Awards & Emblems, Na-
tional
Awards, British Acadamy
Distinction &
- Titles
306
611
613
306
86
87
526
508
189
354
156
563
157
B
Badminton Championship 337
Balance of Payments,
India s . . . . 570
Balance of Trade . . 671
Banks, Co-operative
Banks, Foreign (Exchange)
Banks, Indigenous
Bank, International, of Re-
construction
Banks, Land Mortgage
Banks, Non-Scheduled
Bank, Reserve — Develop-
ments
Banks, Scheduled
Barley
Barytes
Basketball Championship
Basic Education
Bauxite
Beggars
Beighton Cup
Belgium
Bells, Largest , .
Bentonite
Beryl
Bharat Ratna
Bhatkal
Bhoodan Movement 263,
212
224
226
599
225
221
215
212
265
321
338
624
319
419
336
87
68
320
318
21
362
621
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3CSXV
Bhutan 87, 763
Bidri Work . . . . 516
Biggest, Largest, Longest 71
Bihar , . 730
Billiards Champions . . 338
Birth Rates .. 139
Births and Deaths in India 450
Blue Riband (Atlantic) .. 84
Bolivia . . . . 87
Bombay 357, 733
Books in India . . 369
Books, Newspaper, etc . . 380
Book Trust, National .. 529
Botanical & Zoological Sur-
veys . . . . 254
Botanical Gardens, National 303
Boxing Champions . . 346
Brazil . . . . 87
Bridges, Indian , . 16
Bridges, Longest . . 67
British Parliament, Indians
in , . . . 19
Broadcasting in India .. 454
Bronze Age . . 55
Buddhist, Festivals .. 48
Budget, Capital . , 234
Budgetary Position, Govt.
of India . . 235
Budgetary Position, States 241
Building Research Inst. . . 303
Buildings, Tall, & Towers 69
Bulgaria . . . . 88
Burma . . . . 88
C
Cables, Hindustan . . 491
Calcutta . . . . 368
Calicut . . . . 361
Calendar ... . . 40
Calendar, Indian . . 40
Cambodia . . . . 90
Canada . . . . 88
Canals of India . . 470
Canals, Ship . . 60
Cancer . . . . 445
Capital Account . . 233
Cardamom . . . . 267
Cargoes Handled by Ports 362
Cargoes, Indian . . 210
Carpets . . . . 604
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ASSAM DlRECTOkY & TEA AREAS HANDBOOK 1957. j
Publishers; ' •
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29, WATERLOO STREET, CALCUTTA-1 i
DABUR ( Dr. S. K. BURMAN ) LTD.
Manufacturers of
AYURVEDIC AND PATENTlMEDICINES
TOILET REQUISITES
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PHARMACEUTICAL PREPARATIONS
Regd. Office— 142, Rasli Bebari Avenue,
CALaJTTA-29
Selling Agency JASIDIH TRADING CO.
160, Harrison Road, Calcutta.
Sales Depot 4, Taracliand Dutta Street, Calcutta.
X3CXVU
Cashew Nuts . . 258
Castor . . . . 259
Cattle, Species of . . 268
Caves & Caverns, Famous 60
Cement 319, 504
Census, Indian . . 416
Census, Medical . . 446
Central African Federation 89
Ceramic & Glass Research 302
Ceylon . . . . 89
Chess Champions . . 346
Child Welfare . . 697
Chile . . . . 89
China . . . . 89
Chittaranjan Locomotive
Works . . . . 489
Christian Festivals . . 46
Chromite
318
Chronology, Indian
23
Cinchona _ . .
256
Cinema Circuits
668
Cinema Facts
658
Cinema in India
660
Cities
416
Cities, Largest
138
Cities of India
16
Citizenship, Indian
164
Civilization, Stages of
66
Clays
320
Climate, World Extremes of
62
Cloves
267
Coach Factory, Integral
. ,
489
Coal
• •
314
PENICILLIN
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Marketed since January, 1954.
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Average y/eW of Penicillin in this medium had reached the average
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CALCUTTA-26
Coal Corporation,
Congress Presidents, In-
Hindustan
494
dian National
22
Coastal Trades
206
Conservation, Afforestation
Cocanada
361
& Soil
276
Cochin
359
Constellations . .
61
Coconut
260
Constituent Assembly of
Coifee
257,
608
India, Speaker
22
Coins, New
66
Constitution, Amendments
Coir
610
to the Indian
148
Colombia
90
Constitution of India
141
Colombo Plan
600
Continents, Area of the ..
67
Comets
51
Copper
319
Commerce, India’s
664
Corundum
320
Commercial Papers
378
Costa Rica
90
Commissions & Committees
642
Cottage & Small Scale In-
Commission, Indian Na-
dustries
613
tional
629
Cottage Industry Products
616
Commonwealth Press Union
369
Cottage Industries, State
617
Communications &
Trans-
Cotton
267
port _ . .
163
Cottonseed
260
Communication
Service,
Country Craft . .
206
Overseas
201
Cricket, Indian
331
Community Development
Cricket : Record Individual
Projects
687
Scores
342
Conference Lines, !
India &
Cricket ; Test Match Re-
the
. .
208
cords
341
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House of Sivaji
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India Through the Ages
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STORIES FROM MODERN BENGAL
Broken Bread
Translated into English bg Mrs. LILA ROY
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" ■ ' i mi - i »n f— i f.Br — —
xxxxi
Crops . . . . 248
Cuba . . . . 90
Cycle Industry .. 499
Czechoslovakia . . 90
D
Dams, Highest & Largest 69
Dances of India . , 158
Diary Edaeation . . 285
Diary Farming .. 283
Date Line, International . . 45
Davis Cup . . . . 345
Days, Longest & Shortest 45
Death Rates . . 139
Debt Position, Govt, of
India . . . , 237
Debt, Public . . 236
D. D. T. Factory . . 492
Decorations & Medals . , 84
Defectives , . . . 444
Defence Academy, National 405
Defence Services Staff
College . . . . 405
Degree Course in Eng.
Technology . . 542
Delhi . . . . 755
Delhi, Flagship . . 402
Delhi, New . . . . 93
Democratic Republic, So-
vereign . . 141
Denmark . . , . 90
Depths & Heights . . 83
Deserts . . . . 59
Dhanushkadi . . 361
Diseases, Tropical . . 445
Discoveries & Inventions 75
Diseases . . . . 273
Distances by Rail . . IB
Domestic Products . . 409
Dominican Republic . . 90
Do You Know . . 162
Drug Research Inst., Cen-
tral . . . . 302
E
Earth . . . . 50
Education, All-India Coun-
cil for Secondary _ . . 529
Educational Institutions . . 634
Educational and Vocational
Guidance . . 529
Education, Central Advi-
sory Board of . . 528
Education, Higher in Rural
Areas . . . . 629
Education, Indian . . 623
Education, Medical . . 451
Education Ministry, Acti-
vities of . . 5S1
Education of the Handi-
capped . . . . 626
Education, Secondary . . 624
Egypt . . . . 91
Election Commission . . 146
Election Manifesto . . 633
Elections 1957, Indian . . 629
Electricity in India . . 463
Electricals, Heavy .. 493
Electric Energy Generated
& Sold .. 466
Electro-Chemical Research
Inst. . . . . 303
Emblem, National .. 157
Engineering Research . . 303
Equador . . . . 91
Everest, Attempts’ on . . 17
External Assistance . . 599
Exchange Control, Indian 668
Exchange Reserve, foreign 670
Explosives Factory . . 492
F
Factories Act (1948)
Family Welfare
Farming, Co-operative
Federal Language
Feldspar
Fertilizer Industry
Festivals, Hindu
Festivals, Moslem
Fibres
Field & Track Records
Filigree
Film Advisory Board
Film Awards, State
Film Board, National
Film Enquiry Committee
Films Festival, Cannes
Film Festival, Venice
383
697
578
531
319
488
46
47
257
343
617
653
562
653
650
663
663
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Films, Stete Awards . . ’ 555
Corporation, Indus-
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Fishes, Varieties of 9 ^
Fishing: Industry ‘ III
•• f
o/^n, Second . , 589
Some over-
all Results Tos
|a|f'feXf iJi-
;; HI
Rights & Jumps, Record . . 84
iWers, National & State 84
j lying Clubs , 192
fool r I^“*nitian ’ . . ’ 451
£^ooa Crops per^
Food Technological
Research . . 302
Football Championship, Na-
tional ope
Football : — Durand Cup . . 335
I. F. A. Shield . . 334
■lord Foundation: 603
” n & Small Scale In-
dustnes . . 515
Foreign Capital ! . 486
Forei^ Diplomats in India 791
■r Orests : Classification of 275
in India 274
Lands & Outturn 281
Produces & Uses 278
Research & Educa-
_ tion
Forestry, Central Board of'
Formosa
France
Freight & Fare
^^^‘^e.Eulers of, since W,
war II
Fuel Research Inst., Cenrial
Fuller's Earth
Fundamental Eights
277
276
91
91
167
108
302
321
141
Gazetteer, World 85
Geological Survey of India' 312
Geographical Information 67
Geographical Record
Breakers . , 6j
Germany ‘ ’ gg.
Rulers of— Since
W. War I . . 209-
Gestation of various
Animals, Period of .. 82
Cnee Adulteration . . 286
Ghee Production . . 286
Glass & Ceramic Research
Inst. . . 302
Glass & Glassware ' 505
Gliding Club .. 195
Gold ^ ^ 225
Government Departments 770
Governments, State . . 144
Governor-Generals of
Indian Union . . 22
Gram & Pulses . , 255
Graphite . , 321
Gt. Britain & Northern Ire-
lanii . . 92
Greece , . 93
Groundnut , 259
Guatemala . . 93
Gypsum . . 320
H
Haiti . . 93
Handlooms & Textiles . . 517
Harboxir Board, National 356
Heads of Govts, of the
Now that the winter la over, yon will, no doubt,
look to your fans to save you from summer’s heat
and humidity. It will be worth your while to have
a qualified electrician give your fans a preliminary
check-up before you switch them on again.
Even in the case of lEW fans notwithstanding their
mechanical and stractural excellence, this checA-up is
recommended to doubly ensure their traditionally
■' trouble-free, smooth, silent and economic service.
Check up I L Wiring
2. Commutator
8. Carbon
4 . Grease
tm INDIA EIECmC WORKS ITB.
INDIA cx, ROHTAStu. BHARAT kc.
BEHALAsx, RANJlTse. TARAtxssx.
xsxxv
Central
106
442
World
Health, Board of.
Advisory 445 ,
Central Council of 441
ul? Education Bureau 443
Health & Medical Educa-
tion
Health, Ministry of
Health, Public
Hemp
Hides, Leather & Skins ! !
High Courts
Highest & Lowest Eleva-
tions
Highest Mountain Peaks !
Highest Peaks of Hima-
layas
Hill Stations
Himachal Pradesh ! !
Himalayan Peaks, Con-
quest of . . 18
Hindustan Housing Facto^ 490
Hindustan Machine Tools
r actory
Hindustan Shipyard ! !
Wo'men’s
^tional
^'J?^|y^Toumament, Dh'yan
Holidays * [
Homoeopathy & Indigenous
systems
Honduras
Horn Articles
Housing Factory
Humanistic Inst.
Hungary
Hurdle Records
Hydro-Power Resources of
India
440
438
438
258
501
625
58
57
17
28
756
18
491
491
337
336
337
45
441
93
517
490
540
93
344
India :
463
Iceland
Ilmenite
IMCO • ;
Income, National
Index Numbers : Agricul-
tural Production Various
InSubjects 261. 293
India (Map) 72 I
93
318
330
407
India at a Glance :
Climate & Rainfall
Coast Line
Forests
Languages
Livestock
Minerals
National Flag
People
Physical Division
Ports
Races
Religions
River Systems
Soil
States
India, Foreigpi Investment
in
India Government Trade
Representatives
Indian Pacts in a Nutshell
Indian Fellows of Royal
Society
Indian Information
Indians, First among
Indians in Commonwealth
Countries
Indians in Foreign
Countries
Indians, Notable
Indian Representatives
abroad
Indians Overseas
Indonesia
Industrial Policy, Govt. . .
Industrial Productions! . .
Industrial Research
Industries, Development &
Control of
Industries, Nationalized . .
Industry, Financial Aid to
Industry, Indian
Infant Mortality
Information & Publicity,
Central & St. Govts.
Information, General
Information Services
Information Services,
Foreign
Insecticides, Hindustan
Instruments Factory, Na-
tional
1
1
153
789
11
19
15
28
413
414
25
785
411
93
482
511
299
483
487
484
481
450
369
67
370
372
492
489
sxxxvi
Insurance in India
478
International Bank
R. & D,
for
329
International Civil Aviation
Org.
328
International Court of
Justice
327
International Monetary
"Fund
329
Inventions, Great
72
Iran
94
Iraq
• « •
94
Irish Republic
93
Irrigation, Indian
, ,
467
Irrigation, Main Types
of
469
Irrigation : Principal
jects
Pro-
471
Iron
* ^
317
Iron Age
55
Iron and Steel
495
Iron & Steel Projects
493
Israel
94
Italy
95
ITO-GATT
330
ITU
329
Ivory Work ^
••
517
Jammu & Kashmir
748
Japan
* ,
95
Jordan
95
Journalism Courses
378
Judiciary
, ,
143
Jute
257,
496
Jumping Records
344
Juvenile Delinquency
598
J. V. P. Report
• .
621
Labour Administration
& Le^slation . . 382
Labour in India . . 381
Labour Laws , . 382
Labour Reform . . 381
Lac . . 258
Laccadive, Minicoy & Amin-
divi Islands . . 759
Lakes . . 68
Land Reforms . . 576
Languages . . 427
Languages in tbe Consti-
tution 147/129
Languages, Indian . . 428
Largest Islands . . 59
Lawn Tennis Championsbip,
National . , 338
Lead . . 321
Learned Societies & Re-
search Inst.
.. 307
Leather Research
Insti.,
Central
.. 302
Lebanon
.. 96
Legislature
.. 143
Lemongrass Oil
. . 258
Lenin Peace Prize
.. 20
Liberia
.. 96
Libraries of the World . . 68
Libya
.. 96
Liechtenstein
96
Linseed
.. 259
Livestock & the
Consti-
K
Kabadi Championsbip, Na-
tional . . 338
Kandla . . 367
Kanchenjunga, Attempts on 18
Karikal . . 362
Kerala . . . . 762
Korea . . 95
Kyanite . . 319
L
Laboratories, Medical
Researches etc. . . 447
Laboratory, Nat, Chemical 301
„ „ Physical .. 301
tution . . 267
Livestock & Poultry . . 273
Local Bodies in India . . 153
Locomotive Production . . 168
Lok Sabha . . 148
Loans, Central Govt. . . 238
Loan, State Govts, . . 238
Longest Rivers . . 57
Longest Tunnels . . 60
Luxemburg . . 97
M
Machine Tools Prototype
Factory .. 497
Madhya Pradesh 735
^Jadras^ 358 733
Mapmesite .. fiiq
Mail, Night .. 193
Slalana . . , ^ 444
xxxsrvii
Malaya, Federation of
97
Museums in India
634
Malpe
362
Mustard & Rape
.
260
Mangalore
361
Myrobalans
•
258
Manganese
315
Mysore
.
749
Manipur
757
Mankind, Classification of
54
N
Mankind, Eaces of
53
Nagaland
.
664
Maritime Trade
206
Nagpur Plan
.
182
Marketing, Directorate of
254
Nahan Foundry
•
490
Marriage Kate
140
National Day
• •
112
Match
505
Nationalisation of Trans-
Medical Research
304
port
• •
186
Medicine and Physiology,
National Parks
• •
17
Discoveries in
76
National Parks & Sane-
Medium of Instructions • .
530
tuaries
, *
291
Menzies Mission
704
National Research Develop-
Mercantile Marine, Indian
204
ment Corp.
305
Merchant Shipping
206
National Songs
157
Metal Art Wares
517
Natural Resources & Scien-
Metallurgical Laboratory
301
tific Research, Ministry
Meteorological Research , .
305
of
299,
311
Meteors
51
Navy, Indian
401
Mexico
97
Naya Paisa
66
Mica
316
Negapatam
361
Mile Runners
343
Nepal
98
Milk Productions
271
Netherlands
98
Milky Way
343
New & Old Names
of
Millets
255
Places
* ,
19
Mineral Information Bureau 312
News Agencies, Foreign 367, 378
Mineral Oil in India
718
News Agencies, Indian
366,
379
Mineral Resources
311
Newspaper Associations
368
Minerals, Description of . .
314
Newspaper Circulation,
In-
Mines
383
dian
366
Mines & Applied Geology,
Newspapers, Important In-
School of
313
dian
372
Mines & Mineral Conserva-
New Zealand
98
tion
311
Nicaragua
98
Mining & Metallurgy,
Nobel Prizes . .
77
College of
313
Nobel Prize Winners,
In-
Mint, New
493
dian
20
Monaco
97
Norway
98
Monazite
318
Notable Indians
25
Money Rates in India
230
Nuclear Research
306
Mongolia, Outer (People’s
Rep.)
97
0
Months, Names of
42
Oceans & Seas
67
Moon
50
Ochres
318
Morocco
98
Oilseeds
259
Motor Vehicles — ^Total
Okha
363
Number
187
Orissa
743
Mountain Passes
60
Oscars for 1955
563
Museums & Aquaria
266
Overseas Shipping
206
jnocxviii
Padma Bibhushan . . 21
Pakistan 99, 767
Pak-Indian Affairs : . . 654
Indus Waters . . 654
Pak Claim over Chitral 654
Kashmir Developments 655
Exodus of Hindus . . 657
Border Incidents . . 658
Pakistani Debt to India 659
Jt. flood Control mea-
sures . . 659
Indo-Pakistani Trade
Pact . . 659
Panama, Republic of . . 99
Paper & Paperboards . . 500
Paraguay . . 99
Param Vir Chakra . . 21
Parliament, Indian . . 22
Parliament, Powers & Pri-
vileges of . . 143
Parties, National . . 629
Pearl Oysters . . 266
Peer of the British Realm 19
Pepper . . . . 257
Peru . . . . 99
Petroleum . . . . 316
Petroleum Industry • . 501
Phillippines . . 99
Phulkari . . . . 516
Places of Interest . . 31
Places, Show, Indian . . 650
Planets . . . . 50
Planning Commission . . 643
Plan Outlay, Distribution of 591
Plantation Labour Laws . . 383
Plywood Industry . . 506
Poland . . . . 100
Poland & Hungary, events in 711
Polar Auroras . . 52
Polar Records . . 63
Political Abbreviations .. 113
Political Information . . 106
Political Parties & Groups 114
Political Parties, Indian , . 116
Political Terms . . 118
Pondicherry 362, 755
Poppy . . _ - - 256
Population according to
Religion 138, 422
Population Density .. 137
Population, Estimates of
Population, World
Port Trusts
Ports, Indian
Ports, Major & Minor
Portugal
Portugal’s Disputes with
India
Portuguese India
Postage Stamps since In-
dependence
Postal Education ‘ . .
Postal Expansion
Postal Landmarks
Postal Revenue
Postal Savings
Postal System
Posts & Telegraphs
Pottery
Poultry
Power & Irrigation Projects
Power Development in India
Power Projects under five-
year Plan . .
Power Supply, India’s
Precedence of Persons . .
Precious Stones
Prehistoric Races
President — ^Indian Union . .
Press Associations
Press Commission's Report
Press Council
Press, Freedom of the . .
Press, Indian
Press Laws
Press Union, Commonwealth
Prime Ministers, British . .
Prime Minister (Indian)
addresses U.N. General
^sembly
Privy Councillors, Indian
Producers, Leading Indian
(film)
Products, National
Prohibition in India
Projects, Waterway
Public Affairs, State in . .
Publications Division
Public Services
Punjab
Pyrites
137
137
356
355
355
100
713
767
203
199
202
202
202
238
197
196
504
271
476
463
466
461
159
321
56
22
377
367
365
363
363
364
369
107
678
19
559
410
572
189
639
371
580
743
320
xxxxix
Quilon . . . . 361
R
Race, Meaning of . . 64
Race, Pure . . . . 54
Radio Sets, Imports of . . 460
Radio Receiver Sets, num-
ber of . . . . 460
Railway Amenities . . 174
Railway and the Plan . , 174
Railway Committee . . 166
Railway Dates, Important 180
Railway facts . . 178
Railway finance . . 166
Railway Organisations . . 171
Railway Reserve Funds . . 176
Ry.^Station Platforms, Lon-
gest . . . . 67
Railway Workshops . . 168
Railway Zones , . 169
Railways, Administration of 166
Railways, Electrification of 168
Railways in India . . 163
Rajya Sabha . . . . 143
Rajasthan . . 746
Ranji Trophy . . 333
Rank & Precedence . . 1B9
Rayon Industry . . 501
Records, World, Notable 350
Refrigeration . . 263
Rent, Fixation of . . 577
Reorganisation of States . . 621
Research & Training — Road
Organisations . . 184
Research Associations (by
Industries) • • 306
Resei-ve Bank of India :
Assets & Liabilities 216
Banking Dept. ■ ■ 217
Resei-voirs, World’s
Greatest . . 69
Revenue Account ; 233, 239, 240
Revenue & Expenditure . . 234
Rice . . . . 254
River Valley Projects • • 468
Road Administration . . 181
Road Fund, Central . . 182
Road Research Inst., Cen-
tral . . . . 302
Roads Congress, Indian . . 183
Roads in India . . 181
D
Road Transport . . 185
Ropeways . . . . 186
Rubber 257, 504
Rumania . . . . 100
Rupee ; Exchange Value 351
Rural Credit Survey
. Committee . . 227
Russian Loan . . 610
S
Saarland
Sahitya Akadami Award —
1956
Salaries — Heads of Govts.
Salt
Saltpetre
Salt Research Inst., Central
Salvador, El
Sangit Natak Akadami
Awards 1966
San Marino
Sanskrit Commission
Santosh Memorial Trophy
Sargent Scheme
Satellites
Saurashtra Ports
Science, International Con-
tacts in
Scientific Documentation
Centre
Scientific Progress in India
Scientific Research Instas.
& Laboratories ;
Second Term for Eisen-
hower
Security Council — U.N. . .
Services, All-India
Sesamum
Ship Buildings
Shipowners, Consultive
Comm, of
Shipping Control Dept. . .
Shipping Corporation, Eas-
tern
Shipping, Indian
Shipping Interest, Consul-
tive Comm, of
Ships, Largest
Sikkim
Silk
Silk Industry
Sillimanite
100
646
108
317
318
303
91
645
100
643
335
527
61
360
298
305
297
539
710
325
681
260
209
205
205
490
204
205
83
763
258
602
320
1
Silver Eefinery Project ..
Small Savings
Snakes, Poisonous
Soap
Social Welfare
Soil Conservation
Soil of India . .
Solar System
Somalis, SeU-Govt. for
South Africa
South Africa — ^India &
Apartheid
Spain
Spans of Bridges, Largest
Speeds
Spices
Sports Section
Sports Goods
Standard Time, Indian ..
Stars
States in India
Andhra
Assam
West Bengal
Bihar
Bombay
Madhya Pradesh
Madras
Orissa
Punjab
Uttar Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh
Rajasthan
Jammu & Kashmir . .
Mysore
Kerala
Delhi
Pondicherry
Hamachal Pradesh . .
Manipur
Tripura
Laccadive, Minicoy &
,• Amindivi Islands ..
Andaman & Nicobor
Islands
Sikkim
States, New Indian
States Judiciary
States Reorganisation Com-
mission
States bordering India . .
Bhutan
490
238
9
606
696
254
2
48
709
100
677
101
70
82
266
331
610
45
61
721
721
724
727
730
733
735
738
741
743
746
746
746
748
749
762
765
765
766
767
769
769
761
762
48
146
621
763
763
Nepal
Tibet
Portuguese India ! !
Pakistan
States, Status of the !
Statistical Research
Steatite . . [ ^
Stock, Distribution of Basic
— (mankind)
Stone Age . . . |
Stones, Birth ..
Stones & Planetary Actions
Students in Recognised Ins-
titutions
Structures Highest, Indian'
Structures of the World,
Famous
Subhas Bose Committee ..
Sudan
Suez Canal : India & Na-
tionalization of S.C.
Suez Canal Co. . [
Suez Canal users Asson. ! !
Sugar
Sugarcane . , [
Sulphur
Surat
Survey of India I ‘
Swaythling Cup
Sweden
Swimming Championship
Swimming Records . .
Switzerland
Syria . . "
^ . T
Table Tennis Champion-
Table Tennis— International
Tanker Fleet
Tariff Commission
Tea
Technical Assistance
Telegraph Service
Telephone Industries
Telephones
Telescopes, Notable
TextDe Industry
Thailand
Theories
Throwing Records
Tibet
Time :
764
765
767
767
625
305
320
65
65
S2
81
634
18
64
642
101
669
700
705
497
268
320
361
307
347
101
338
340
102
102
267,
347
209
668
606
605
199
491
200
67
494
102
77
344
765
43
li
Measurement of Time 43
Different Times 43, 44, 46
Time, Standard, Indian . . 45
Titanium . . . • 321
Tobacco 256, 608
Tonnage & Number of In-
dian Vessels . . 210
Tonnage of Vessels Entered
& Cleared . . 210
Tourism in India . . 648
Tourist Information Offices 372
Tourist Traffic . . 173
Towns & Villages in India 417
Track & Field Eecords 343, 346
Trade Eepresentatives of
Overseas Governments . . 793
Training, Marine . . 208
Training Institution (Na-
tional Defence) . . 406
Transport, Inland Water 187
Transfer of Tr. Settlements
in India
Treasury
India)
Trieste
Tripura
Tungsten
Turkey
Tuticorin
Bills
(Govt, of
U
Union Executive
U.S.S.E.
United Nations ;
U.N. — Economic & Social
Council
U.N. — ^Educational, Scienti-
fic & Cultural Organisa-
tion
U.N.— Flag
672
237
102
769
320
102
360
142
103
323
326
U.N. — ^Food & Agricultural
Org. . . • • '
U.N.— General Assembly . .
U.N. — ^International Labour
Org.
U.N. — ^Members
U.N. — Organs
U.N. — Secretariat
U.N.— Security Council
328
324
328
U.S.A., Presidents of the 107
United Kingdom . . 104
Universal Postal Union
(U.P.U.) ., 329
Universities of India . . 636
University Education Com-
mission . . . . 627
University Grants Commis-
sion . . . . 630
Uranium — ^Thorium Factory 494
Uruguay . . . . 104
Uttar Pradesh , . 745
Vanadium . . . . 320
Vanaspati Industry . . 510
Vanishing Animals . . 289
Vatican City . . . . 104
Venezuela . . . . 104
■Vice-Chancellors . . 636
Victoria Cross, Indian Win-
ners of . . . . 20
Viet-Nam . , 104
Vishakhapatnam . . 360
Volcanoes . . 68
Volleyball Championship . . 338
W
Walking Eecords . . 344
Waterfalls . . 62
Welfare of Women . . 597
West Bengal . . 727
"Wheat . . . . 265
Whos’ Who . . 796
Wightman Cup . . 346
Wild Life . . . . 287
Wild Life Preservation . . 288
Wimbledon Tennis Cham-
pionship . . 346
Wool & Woollen Textiles . . 503
World Dimensions . . 67
World Health Organisation 329
World Meteorological Orga-
328
323
nisation
Y
.. 330
324
327
325
327
Year
Yugoslavia
Z
43
.. 104
326
Zinc
.. 318
102
Zircon
. .
. . 318
DEY’S MEDICAL STORES PRIVATE LTD.
CALCUTTA O BOMBAY • DELHI « MADRAS.
INDIA AT A GLANCE
AREA
India covers an area of 1,2G0,G40 square miles including Jammu
and Kashmir and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. It has a land fron-
tier of 8,200 miles long and a coast line of 3,500 miles. It is approxi-
mately thirteen times as large as United Kingdom, eight times the
size of Japan and a seventh of U.S.S.R. It is the seventh largest
country in the world. It extends about 2,000 miles from north to south
and about 1,400 miles from cast to west. Its triangular peninsula
juts into the Indian Ocean and is bounded on the south-west by tho
Arabian Sea and on the south-east by the Bay of Bengal. India is
bordered on tho north-west by West Pakistan and on the north-cast
by Burma, East Pakistan, Bhutan, Nepal and Tibet.
PHYSICAL DIVISION
India is divided into three main topographical arcao,
1. The Himalayan region (Mountain wall),
2. Tho Indo-Gangotic plains (the Plaine),
8. The Deccan or Peninsula of the south (Peninsular region).
The Ilimalagan region extends across tho northern border from
Kashmir to the Burma frontier. Ilo Himalayas comprise a system
of slupendou.s fold-mountain ranges, some of them the loftiest in tho
world : extending in the shape of a scimitar with its edge facing
southward. This region runs for 2,000 miles from tho eastern extre-
mity of Assam to the western limits of Kashmir with a breadth
varying from 180 to 220 miles. South of the mountains arc tho
Inclo-Gangctio plains. They are about 1,600 miles long, cast to west^
and from 150 to 200 miles broad. The plains arc broken by inter-
mittent low-lying mountain ranges and arc watered by India’s threo
main rivers — the Ganges, the Brahmaputra and the Jumna — which
flow southward from the Himalayas to the _ Bay of Bengal. Tho
peninsular region is a table land and lies within the tropics. It is
bounded on the three sides by mountains — on the north by tho
Vindhya and Satpura ranges, on the west by the Western Ghats,
on the cast by the Eastern Ghats. Two coastal strips of flat land
exist on the outer side of both Western and Eastern Ghats — tho
v/ostern coastal strip is known ns tho Konkan in the north and
Malabar in the south ; the eastern coastal strip is known ns Coro-
mondal Coast.
CLIMATE AND RAINFALL
One of the chief characteristics of rainfall in India is its unequal
distribution over tho country. Some Indian States always get
abundant rain, and some never get more than an inch or two per
annum, while over large areas the rainfall is uncertain. The averago
2
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
annual rainfall in India is 42 inches. The areas of certain rainfall
are West Bengal, Assam, West Malabar Coast, western slopes of the
Ghats and the upper valley of the Narmada. The zones of uncertain
rainfall are Uttar Pradesh, Western and Northern Rajasthan, Cen-
tral Rajasthan bordering on the U. P. and large part of
Bombay. A tropical monsoon climate prevails in most of the
country ; changes in the time or nature of the monsoons can
vitally affect the Indian economy. There are two monsoon seasons.
The south-west monsoon from June through September is the most
important. It brings heavy rainfall to most of the country but only
light showers in the central and eastern parts of the peninsula.
The monsoon’s direction riverses in November blowing from north-
east through February. The north-east monsoon provides the
heaviest rainfall of the year to the south-eastern areas but dry
weather everywhere. The climate is everywhere dominated by the
seasonal rhythm of the monsoons and about 85 per cent of the rain
comes from the south-west monsoon between June and October.
Rainfall in most parts of India ranges from 30 to 70 inches.
The temperature in the north ranges from a mean of about 40
degrees in January to 115 degrees in May. There is a cool winter
season from November through February, a hot summer period
from March through June and a humid rainy season from July
through October. The plains are hot throughout most of the year.
The temperature of the plateau is also hot and fairly constant,
although the temperature and humidity are somewhat lower than
the plains.
The mean annual temperatures for India’s three major cities
are : Calcutta, 79 degrees, with a range from 50 to 85 ; and Bombay
and Madras between 80 and 85 degrees with a normal annual range
of less than 10 degrees.
We can divide the country into four zones according to rainfall ;
(1) TT^et zone, where minimum rainfall is 100 inches. This includes
West Bengal, Assam and Western coast strips. (2) 'Intermediate
zone (zone of moderate rainfall); it includes portions of Central
Ipdia, Himalayas to Godavari river, east-coast of the peninsula and
eastern side of the Western Ghat and up to Baroda, where rainfall
is between 40 inches and 80 inches. (3) Dry zone, where rainfall
is less than 40 inches. (4) Desert zone, where rainfall is less than
20 inches, t.e., Rajasthan and East Punjab.
SOIL OF INDIA
About 35 per cent of the land area is fertile, well-watered and
under cultivation. 20 to 25 per cent is left fallow or is waste land
which can be brought under cultivation. Forests cover some 16 per
cent of the land area. The remainder consists of deserts, semi-
deserts and mountain ranges.
Indian soil may be mainly classified under four different heads
namely, (1) alluvial soil, (2) black soil, (3) red soil and (4) latcrite
soil.
The alluvial soil is the most important soil and is formed by the
silts brought by the rivers every year and deposited on their banhs
INDIA AT A GLANCE
3
It is very fertile and covers greater part of the northern India
between the foot of the Himalayas and the northern slopes of the
Vindhyas and extends in a narrow fringe round the coastline of the
peninsula. Territorially they occupy Punjab, Uttar-Pradesh, Bihar,
West Bengal, parts of Assam and Orissa and also in the coastal
regions of Southern India. The whole of the Indo-Gangetic plain is
comprised in this area.
Red soils cover the whole of Madras, Mysore and south-east
Bombay, east of Hyderabad and Madhya Pradesh to Orissa and
Chota Nagpur. Northwards the red soil extends into greater part
of Santhal Parganas and the Birbhum district of West Bengal, the
Mirzapur, Jhansi and Hamirpur districts of the Uttar Pradesh, the
Baghelkhand States of Central India, the Aravalis and the eastern
half of Rajasthan.
Black soil or black cotton soil is formed by the lava of volcanic
eruptions and is very suitable for cotton cultivation. The black soil
covers greater part of Bombay and Saurashtra, western part of
Madhya Pradesh, Madhya Bharat and Hyderabad and some parts of
Madras State. Black cotton soil is exceedingly compact and tenaci-
ous and sticky when wet. The water-holding capacity of this soil
is good. Cotton, jawar, wheat, linseed and gram are cultivated in
these areas and the soil is" rich in iron and aluminium but very poor
in organic matter and other plant nutrients.
Laterite soil is derived by the atmospheric weathering of several
types of rocks under monsoon conditions of alternating dry and wet
periods. This soil is found on the summits of the hills of the Deccan,
Madhya Bharat, Madhya Pradesh and of the Rajmahal and Eastern
Ghats and certain parts of Orissa, Bombay, Malabar and Assam.
STATES OF INDIA
After the re-organisation of States in accordance with the pro-
visions of the States Re-organisation Act and the Bihar and West
Bengal (Transfer of Territories) Act, 1956, the States of India now
consist of 14 States and 6 Centrally-administered Territories, such
as States — (1) Andhra Pradesh, (2) Assam, (3) Bihar, (4) Bombay,
(5) Jammu & Kashmir, (6) Kerala, (7) Madhya Pradesh, (8) Madras,
(9) Mysore, (10) Orissa, (11) Punjab, (12) Rajasthan, (13) Uttar
Pradesh, (14) West Bengal. Centrally-administered Territories —
(1) Delhi, (2) Himachal Pradesh, (3) Manipur, (4) Tripura, (5)
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, (6) Laccadive Amindevi & Minicoy
Islands.
COAST LINE
India has a coast line of 3,500 miles which gives one mile of
coast to every 400 square miles of area.
But coast line of India lacks in indentations ; it has only four
openings of importance into land, such as Runn of Cutch and Gulf
of Cambay on west, the Gulf of Mannar between India and Ceylon
and the head to the Bay of Bengal. The coasts are _ singularly free
from islands and the sea round the coast of India is very shallow
4
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
and the shores are usually flat and sandy. The West coast is rocky
■with mountains close to the sea. East coast is less rocky but the
sea here is shallow, so that large ships cannot approach the coast.
Because of these physical features, India possesses few ports and
harbours in proportion to her coast line.
LANGUAGES
According to the census of 1951, the total languages or dialects
in India are 845 including 720 Indian languages spoken by less than
a lakh persons each and 63 non-Indian languages. Some 32.4 crore
or 91 per cent of the population speak one of 14 languages specified
in the Constitution. This multiplicity of languages need not dismay
any one, because only 12 are of major importance. Hindi, the
national language is spoken by the largest number of people. Eng-
lish is used in Government notices and correspondence and is widely
understood in Government and business cii'cles. The Constitution
of India provides that English is to continue to be used for official
purposes at least until 1965, but eventually Hindi in Devnagri script
is to become the official language of record.
RIVEB SYSTEMS
(1) Rivers of Northem India — ^These Himalayan rivers rise in
the mountain wall or beyond it. The rivers are fed with waters from
the gradual melting of snow. They do not depend entirely for their
waters on the monsoon rains. The Himalayan rivers have a flow
throughout the year.
The three greater river systems of northem India are ; — (a)
Indus river with its five tributaries, i.c., the Jhelnm, the Chenub, the
Ravi, the Beas and the Sutlej ; (b) The Ganges with a course of fifteen
hundred miles, drains Himalaya’s southern slopes and with its tribu-
taries, the Jamuna, the Gogra, the Gondnk, the Chambal and the
Save, and enters Bay of Bengal through extensive deltas with multi-
tude of channels ; (c) The Brahmaputra flows down through Tibet,
Assam and Eastern Bengal and discharges its floods after a course
of sixteen hundred and eighty miles into Bay of Bengal.
(2) Rivers of Peninsular India — They are quite different from
the rivers of the northern India. They rise in the hills of the
plateau and they are fed only by monsoon rains. The rivers rise
near Western Ghats, and fio\y towards Bay of Bengal. The most
important are the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Kistna and the
Cavery. In the north of the plateau two important rivers, the
Narbada and the Tapti flow westwards.
POUTS
India has very few natural harbours, because it is broken by
very few inlets of the sea, the sea round the coast is very shallow
and the shores are usually flat and sandy. Except Bombay. Okha
and Cochin, all other ports in Western India coast arc virtually in-
accessible during the monsoon. The eastern coast of India is surf-
INDIA AT A GLANCE
5
bound and has no natural harbour. Calcutta is about 90 miles from
the sea and the formation of sand banks in the Hooghly has made
Calcutta a dangerous port.
Six ‘major’ ports of India are — Calcutta, Visakhapatnam, Madras,
Cochin, Bombay, Kandla.
The principal ports of India are Bedi Bunder, Okha, Porbandar,
Surat, Kandla, Bombay, Marmugao, Mangolore, Calicut, Cochin,
Aileppey, Quilon, Tuticorin, Dhanushkodi, Negapatam, Karikal,
Cuddalore, Pondicherry, Madras, Masulipatam, Kakinada, Visakhapat-
nam, Calcutta. The number of ports notified as open for traffic on
the whole coast of India under Indian Ports Act 1908 in 226. Practi-
cally all the India's foreign trade is channelled through one of the
six main ports which are under Central Government supervision.
PEOPLE
According to the 1951 census, India has a population of
36,68,29,485 of whom only 17.3 per cent live in cities and towns,
while 82.7 per cent live in villages. The rate of population increase
is around 1 per cent a year. The life expectancy is only 32 years,
due in large part to the high death rate among infants. The average
additional life expectancy of persons aged 20 is about 35 years.
India has 947 females for every 1,000 males. The number of
males thus exceeds that of the females in all states except Orissa,
Manipur, Madras, Travancore-Cochin and Kutch. The average
density of population in India is 312 per square mile. There are
3,018 to\vns and 5,58,089 villages in the country. There are 73
cities in India that have a population of one lakh and over.
The classification of population according to means of livelihood
shows that 70 per cent of the people of the country depend on agri-
culture and 30 per cent live by non-agriculture professions. 'The
preponderance of agricultural over non-agricultural population pre-
vails in all the States except Saurashtra, Kutch, Ajmer, Delhi and
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
According to 1951 census, there were 5.92 crore literate persons
proportion of literacy in India is 16.6 per cent, corresponding figures
in India of whom 4.56 crore were men and 1.36 cr6re women. The
for the male and female populations being 24.9 and 7.9 per cent
respectively. Travancore-Cochin has the highest percentage of lite-
racy i.e. 46.4 per cent. South India has the largest female literacy
with 13.6 per cent and North India the lowest with 3.6 per cent.
RELIGION
The population of India according to religion is as follows —
Hindus 3,032 lakhs, 85 per cent ; Muslims 354 lakhs, 9.92 per cent ;
Christians 82 lalihs, 2.30 per cent ; Sikhs 62 lakhs, 1.74 per cent ;
Jains 16 lakhs, 0.45 per cent ; Buddhist 2 lakhs, 0.06 per cent ;
Zoroastrians 1 lakh, 0.03 per cent ; other religions (tribal) 17 lakhs,
0.47 per cent ; other religions (non-tribal) 1 lakh, 0.03 per cent.
Total 3,567 lakhs.
6
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
INDIAN RACES
During the British period the first ofiieial enumeration of the
people of India was made by Sir Herbert Risley which was an official
pronouncement accepted very largely both in India and outside India,
though it is now regarded as arbitrary classification based on in-
sufficient data and immature science. Indian races were divided into
seven broad groups, such as Mongoloid, Indo-Aryan, Dravidian,
Mongolo-Dravidian, Aryo-Dravidian, Scytho-Dravidian and Tiirko-
Iranian.
Next classification was made by Dr. J. H. Hutton in 1933 based
on race-cum-language and culture sequence. According to this theory
all people came to India from outside, such as —
(1) Negritos from Africa — the oldest people to have come to
India now surviving in the Andaman islands and in Malaya. Traces
of them seem to occur among the Nagas in Assam and in certain
tribes in South India.
(2) Proto-Aitstraloids — ^who came from the East Mediterra-
nean area.
(3) Early Mediterranians — who brought earlier forms of the
Austric speech.
(4) Civilised or Advanced Mediterranean — ^who became Dra-
■vidians in India.
(6) Annenoids — a specialised offshoot from the standard
Alpine stock probably came with the civilised Mediterraneans
■(Dravidians) and spoke their language.
(6) Alpines — found in Gujarat and Bengal ; earlier than Vedic
Aryans but probably speaking Aryan dialects.
(7) Vedic Aryans or Nordics — who brought the Vedic Aryan
(Sanskrit! speech.
(8) Mongoloids — ^Not important for the greater part of India
as they touched only the northern and eastern fringes.
The most recent and authoritative classification has been made
by Dr. B. S. Guha, Director of Anthropology who divides the people
of India into six main races with nine sub-types.
(1) Negrito — is now almost extinct in India, a small group is
still surviving hi Andamans and its traces have been found among
Kadars and Palayans of Cochin and Travancore Hills, Irurals of
the Wynad, the Angami Nagas of Assam and some of the Raimahal
peoples like the Semangs of Malaya and the Papuans of New Guinea,
Hill tribes of Bihar. They are related to the Asian and Oceanic
but not to the African Negroes and Negritoes.
(2) Proto Australoids — are related genetically to the Austra-
lians as well as the Europeans. They survive in a good many abori-
ginal peoples of the present day India, although more or less mingled
with other people. The majority of the tribal peoples of central
and southern India belongs to this group. Throughout the greater
part of India, the Proto-Austroloid peoples still live as the lower
castes or sections of the Indian people.
(31 The Mongoloid Group — is found in the mountainous zones
of north and north-east India. This group is divided into (1) Palaeo-
INDIA AT A GLANCE
7
Mongoloids consisting of long headed and broad headed types. They
form a dominant element in the tribes in Assam and the Indo-Burmese
frontier and among the less primitive types in Burma and in Chitta-
gong ; (2) Tibeto-Mongoloids are found in Sikkim and Bhutan.
Their physical characteristics are short and broad face with high
•cheek bones, a skin fold from the upper-eyelid covering usually the
inner eye corner giving the eye a slit and oblique appearance,
scanty hair on face and body and light brown skin with yellowish
tint.
(4) Mediterranean Group consisting of (a) Palaeo-Mediterra-
nean, medium statured, dark skinned and slight built, found in
ICannada, Tamil and Malayalam tracts ; (6) Mediterranean, true
European type found in the Punjab, Upper Gangetic Valley and is
supposed to represent civilised pre-Aryan Dravidian people of
Northern India, who contributed largely to the evolution of Hindu
people and culture of North India ; (c) Oriental Type, sometime
•called Semitic or Jewish, found in the Punjab, in Sind, in Eajputana,
in western U.P. and in some other parts of India.
(5) Weetern Rrachycephnlf! consisting of (a) Alpinoid, (6)
Uinarik and (c) Armenoid. They seem to have evolved in the
■Central Asian mountain regions and both Alpine and Dinarik varie-
ties appear to have spread over the greater part of India, i.e., Bengal,
•Orissa, Kathiawar, Kannada and Tamil countries, Gujarat, We.st
■coast of India excepting Malabar. The Parsis of Bombay are allied
to Armenoids.
(61 Nordics are the Aryan speaking group of India who are
responsible for India’s Hindu civilisation and seem to have come
from the Eurasian stenpe lands and entered India during the second
half of the second millennium B.C. The Nordic elements are strong
in North-West Frontier of India, in the south of Hindu-Kush range.
Nordic elements are present in mixed form in Punjab, Bajputana,
Upper Ganges Valley. They are also found among higher castes
and groups and also Nordic type predominates in certain sections in
India.
Lastly the author of this classification Dr. B. S. Guha has how-
ever stated, “It must be clearly understood that no rigid separation
is possible as there is considerable over-lapping of types.”
MINERALS
India is very rich in mineral resources. She is favoured 'with
•a supply of coal suflicient for its present and future industry. Coal
reserves are estimated at 20 billion long tons, of which 5 billion are
•good-quality cooking coal. More than 80 p.c. of India’s coal is prol-
•duced in the States of Bihar and West Bengal. Other coal mining
areas _ are JTadhya Pradesh, Orissa, Hyderabad and Assam. Largp
deposits of lignites have recently Ijeen reported in Madras coastal
plain. India’s reserves of high grade iron ore are estimated to be
about 10 billion tons, or 100 years’ supply at the present rate pf
•consumption. The principal iron ore deposits are in Bihar and
Orissa and smaller deposits in Madhya Pradesh , Mysore and Madras.
8
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Regarding ■non-ferrons metals, deposits of mica and manganese
are large enough not only to meet present domestic requirements
hut also to enter significantly into the country’s export trade, India
produces about 75 p.c. of the world’s total supply of mica. Reserves
of high grade manganese ore are estimated at 10 to 20 million long
tons and the deposits of low grade ore several times larcer. India’s
bauxite reserves are estimated at 250 million tons. India also has
substantial deposits of titanium, kyanite, beryllium, chrome and
gypsum. Reserves of most other important non-ferrous metals are
either small or non-existent. India is dependent upon foreign sources
for copper, zinc, tin, lead, platinum, nickel and mercury.
Regarding mineral oil, India imports 95 per cent of its petro-
leum and petroleum products, the remainder being supplied by
oilfields and a refinery in Assam. New refineries have been started
in Bombay.
AGRICULTURE
Agriculture is the major enterprise of India, providing the liveli-
hood for about 70 per cent of the population. The total land avail-
able for cultivation is about 358 million acres. The land available-
for cultivation per capita of population is 1.06 acres. There is hardly'
a crop of the tropical, sub-tropical or temperate zone which is not
grown in the country. Food crops occupy about 85 per cent of the
total sown area. Rice accounts for about half of India’s cereal out-
put, the other half is accounted for by a variety of grains including
wheat, millet and barley. Of the total area under activation about
17 per cent is irrigated by major and minor works, the rest being
dependent on rainfall. Agriculture is the largest single industry in-
India and as an agricultural country she occupies an unique position
in the world. She is the largest sugarcane producing country in the
■world. She holds virtual monopoly in lac, follows U.S.A. in cotton,
ranks vfith China and Africa as one of the leading millet producing
country and leads ■with China in the production of rice and tea.
ANIMALS
Indian climatic _ conditions have naturally developed a great
variety of animal life and the number of animal species found in
India is much greater than that in Europe.
In India, animals are chiefly seen in the valleys of the Hima-
layas (i.c. Terai Forests) extending from Kashmir to the Brahma-
putra valley, on the Eastern and Western Ghats and in the jungles
of Madhya Pradesh and Centra! India. There are several hig game
•reserve forests in India which now preserve some rare animals of
'.India.
^ (1) TTRf? Aviwats — Jion is almost extinct and is now preserved
■in Gir forest of Kathia'war. Tigers arc found all over India.
Leopards (hunting leopards). Panthers. Cheetahs are common in the
hills and plains. Elephants are found in the lower Himalaynn
•vaUey, the Brahmaputra valley and forests of Nilgiri hills. Dears
INDIA AT A GLANCE
9
are available on the hills everywhere, Deer and antelopes are
commonly seen in the plains.
Yaks are only seen in higher Himalayas. Rhinoceros live in
the swamps of Assam, North Bengal, Nepal. Monkeys, Porcupines,
Hares, wild Hogs are to be seen everywhere.
(2) Domestic Animals — goats, sheep, horses, ponies, asses,
mules, bullocks, buffaloes and available here and there. Camels are
seen in the desert districts of Rajasthan and East Punjab.
(3) Birds — Vultures, kites, hawks, wild d^icks, wild geese, pat-
ridges, pigeong, parrots, cranes, peacocks, snipes and sand grouse
are available everywhere. Birds in India, as in most hot countries,
are more famous for their plumage than for their song,
(4) Reptiles — Crocodiles are seen everywhere. The deadly
snakes of India are Cobras, Russel’s Vipers, Kerait, Hamadryeds.
(5) Fish — Most numerous fish are of carp family. The finest
fish from angler’s point is Masher found in all streams. The richest
and tasty fish of India is hilsa. Fishing waters, river and sea, of
Bengal and Madras are among the most extensive in the world.
LIVESTOCK
India is one of the largest livestock countries in the world.
According to the 1951 livestock census, there are 155 million cattle,
43 rnillion buffaloes and 39 million sheep in the country. India’s 156
million cattle constitute a fourth of the world’s cattle population.
The most important cattle-rearing region is the north-west. It is a
belt extending from Kathiawar through Rajasthan and Punjab to
Kashmir,
The chief livestock products are milk, butter, ghee, meat and
eggs, while a proportion of hides, skins, wool, bones and horns is
exported. The annual production of milk is 17’7 million tons and per
capita consumption of milk and milk products has been estimated at
5-45 oz. a day.
Among the best cows in India are Sahhoal (Punjab) and_ Gir
(Saurashtra). The important breeds of bullocks are Hnnsi (Punjab),
Nellore (Madras), A writ Mahal (Mysore) , Kankraj (Gujarat),
Kangayam (Madras), Kherigarh (U.P.), Davgi and Nimar (Bombay)
and Harina (Punjab). Best breeds of buffaloes are Mnrrah (Punjab),
Jafferbadi (Saurashtra), and McJuisana, Surati and Pandharpuri
(Bombay).
FORESTS
The forests of India cover more than 1/6 of the total area of
the country. . . r l
The forest areas are not well-distributed in some of the States,
specially in the Indo-CIangetic plain where area has ^Ilen to the
dangerously low feature of 11 p-c. in Punjab, 16 in U.P., and 14 m
Bihar. . .
India has been divided into three botanical areas and six pro-
vinces for the proper study of vegetation of India. The three bota-
nical areas are (a) Himalayan — represents a nch, tropical tern-
10
HINDUSTAN 'yEAE-BOOK
perate and alpine flora with forests of conifers, oaks, rhododendrons
and a profusion of orchids, (b) Eastern — consisting of a few conifers,
many oaks and palms with a greater preponderance of orchids and
(c) Western which has only one conifer, few palms and very small
orchids without any oak.
These three areas are divided into six botanical provinces based
■on their climate and physical characters, namely (1) Eastern Hima-
laya, (2) Western Himalaya, (3) Indus plain, (4) Gangetic plain in-
cluding Sunderbans, (5) Malabar and (6) Deccan — each with its
peculiar flora.
The forest vegetation of India is divided into five types accord-
ing to the variation in climate, altitude and habitat, such as — (1)
Evergreen, (2) Deciduous, (3) Dry, (4) Hill and (5) Tidal or Littoral.
The forests in India supply valuable timber, firewood, essential
oils, resin, turpentine, lac, dyeing material, mjTobalans, sources of
paper pulp and other materials of commerce and industry. The chief
forest products of India are — ^teak, sal, deodar, chir, sheesham, many
species of bamboo, leaves, fruits, fibres, grass, gums, resin, barks, etc,
FLAG
National Flag is horizontal tricolour with bands of deep saffron,
white and dark green in equal proportions. On the centre of the
white band appears an Asoka Chakra (wheel) which is na\’y blue.
INDIAN INFORMATION
Andhra
Hyderabad 10,85,722
Vijayavada 1,61,198
Warangal 1,33,130
Guntur . . 1,25,255
Visakhapat-
nam . . 1,08,042
Rajahmun-
dry . . 1,05,276
Bihar
Patna . . 2,83,479
Jamshedpur 2,18,162
Gaya . . 1,33,700
Bhagalpur 1,14,530
Ranchi . . 1,06,849
Bombay
Bombay 28,39,270
Ahmedabad 7,88,333
Poona . . 4,80,982
Nagpur 4,49,099
Sholapur 2,66.050
Surat .. 2,23,182
Baroda' .. 2,11.407
Kolhapur 1,36.835
Hubli . . 1,29,609
Madhya Pradesh
Jabalpur 2,56.998
Bhopal 1,02,633
CITIES OF INDIA
Madras
Madras _
14,16,067
Madurai
3,61,781
Tiruchira-
palli
2,18,921
Salem
2,02,335
Coimbatore
1,97,766
Kozhikode
1,58,724
Mangalore
1,17.083
Vellore
1,06,024
Tanjore
1,00,680
Orissa
Cuttack
1,02,505
Punjab
Amritsar 3,25,747
Jullundur 1,68,816
Ludhiana 1,53,796
Uttar Pradesh
Kanpur 7,05,383
Lucknow 4,96,861
Agra 3.75,665
Banaras 3,65,777
Allahabad 3,32,296
Meerut 2,33,183
Bareilly 2.08,083
Moradabad 1,61,854
Saharanpur 1,48.435
Dehra Dun 1,44,216
Aligarh 1,41,618
Rampur 1,34,277
Gorakpur 1,32,436
Jhansi 1,27,365
West Bengal
Calcutta* 33,44,839
Kharagpur 1,29,636
M. B.
Indore 3,10,869
Gwalior 2,41,571
Ujjain 1,29,817
Mysore
Bangalore 7,78,977
Mysore 2,44,323
Kolar Gold
Fields 1,69,084
Rajasthan
Jaipur 2,91, 130-
Ajmer 1.96.633
Jodhpur 1,80,717
Bikaner 1,17, IIS'.
Saurashtra
Bhavnagar 1,37,951'
Rajkot 1,32.069-
Jamnagur 1,04,419-
Kerala
Trivandrum 1,86.931
Alleppey 1,16,278'
Delhi
Old & New
Delhi 11,91,104
TEN BIG CITIES OF INDIA
Calcutta . . 33,44,839 Madras ' . . 14,16,057
Bombay .. 28,39,270 Delhi .. 11,91,104
♦including Ho-wrah, Tollyganj, Behala and Garden Reach.
16
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Hyderabad • • 10,85,722
Ahmedabad • • 7,88,333
Bangalore ■ • 7,78,977
INDIAN
feet
Sone Bridge . • 10,052
Godavari Bridge . . 9,096
Alahanadi Bridge . . 6,912
Willingdon Bridge .. 2,610
Howrah Bridge* (1943) 2,150
Jubilee Bridge (Naihati) 1,213
Meghna Bridge . • 1,213
Dufferin Bridge (Banaras,
1887) .. .. 3,578
Curzon Bridge (Allaha-
bad, 1905) . . . . 3,200
Tapti Bridge (1872) . . 2,556
Izat Bridge CAUahabad,
1912) .. .. 6,830
Kanpur • • 7,05,383
Lucknow • . 4,96,861
Poona • . 4,80,982
BRIDGES
feet
Naini Bridge (1865,
Allahabad) .. 3,235
Jumna Bridge (1866,
Delhi) .. .. 2,640
Malaviya Bridge (1887,
Banaras)
Sutlej Bridge . . 4,210
Alexandra Bridge
(Chenab) •• 9,088
Narbada Bridge (1881) 4,687
Hooghly Bridge . . 1,213
Ravi Bridge (Pathankot-
Jammu) .. .. 2,800
Ganga Bridge (Mokaineh)t 6,000
DISTANCES BY RAIL
Bom-
Cal-
Mad-
Bom-
Cal-
Mad-
bay. cutta.
ras.
bay.
cutta.
ras.
Agra
835
790
1239
Jabaipore . .
616
733
1263
Ahmedabad
306
1328
1100
Jodhpur
1206
1131
1580
Allahabad . .
845
512
1484
Madras . .
794
1032
—
Ambala
984
1025
1481
Lucknow
885
616
1386
Bangalore . .
745
1245
222
Madurai
1099
1337
, 305
Banaras
928
429
1461
Mathura . .
868
823
1272
Bombay
—
1223
794
Nagpur
520
703
682
Calcutta
1223
—
1032
Poona
119
1342
675
Kanpur
840
630
1602
Ranchi
1447
251
1283
Darjeeling . .
1611
388
1420
Saharanpur
974
938
1430
Dibrugarh . .
2051
828
1860
Simla
1301
1342
1798
Gaya
1057
292
1324
Trichinopoly
1003
1241
209
Delhi
845
902
1361
Visakhapat-
Hyderabad
nam
1277
543
483
(Dn.) ..
491
987
373
♦Largest cantilever span bridge in India and the third largest
cantilever bridge in the world.
tUnder construction.
INDIAN INFORMATION
17
NATIONAL PARKS & GAME SANCTUARIES
Hazaribagh National Park Ramganga National Park, Uttar
(Bihar). Pradesh.
Shivapuri National Park (Ma- Kanheri National Park, Kanheri
dhya Bharat). Valley, Bombay.
Jaldapara Game Sanctuary (W. Mudumalai Game Sanctuary,
Bengal) mainly for rhino & Nilgiri, Madras,
buffalo. Tirap Frontier Tract National
Wild Life Sanctuary, Garumara Park, Assam.
(Jalpaiguri, W. Bengal). Praba Buffalo Sanctuary, N.
Bandipur Game Sanctuary, 48m. Lakhimpur (Assam),
from Mysore. Orang & Laokhowa Reserves
Pariyar Wild-life Sanctuary, (Darrang & Nowgong),
Travancore. Manas Game Sanctuary, Kamrup
Sonai-Rupa Game Sanctuary, (Assam).
Darrang (Assam). Khiziranga Game Sanctuary,
Sibsagar (Assam).
TEN HIGHEST PEAKS OF HIMALAYAS
Everest
Height
29,015
Climbed on
May, 1953
Expedition
British
28,250
July, 1954
Italian
Kanchenjunga
28,146
May, 1955
British
Lhotse
27,890
May, 1956
Swiss
Makalu
27,824
May, 1955
French
Cho Oyu
26,967
Oct., 1954
June, 1950
Austrian
Annapurna
26,926
26,795
French
Dhawalgiri
Unclimbed
. • . >
Mansalu
26,656
May, 1956
Japanese
Nanga Parvat
26,029
July, 1956
Austrian-
ATTEMPTS ON EVEREST
German
1920 — ^Permission given by Dalai 1938 — Light mobile expedition
Lama to climb Everest from by Tilman given up for atro-
Tibetan side cious weather
1921 — 1st Expedition under Lt. 1951 — Reconnaisance expedition
Col. Howard Bury, reached by Shipton to discover route
North Col. for the first time from South Col. from the head
1922 — Expedition under J. G. of CWM through Nepal
Bruce 27,300 1952 — Swiss Expedition by Dr.
1924 — Exp. under Gen. Bruce Wyss Dunant (reached by
and afterwards Norton* 28,150 Lambert & Tensing) 28,216
1933 — Expedition under Hugh 1952 — 2nd Swiss Exp. by Che-
/ Ruttlege 28,150 valley (Post-monsoon) 26,686
1934— M. Wilson’s lone attempt 1953 — British Exp. by Col. John
in which he lost his life. John Hunt reaches Everest on
1935 — Eric Shipton’s reconnais- 29-5-53_ (reached by Tensing
ance expedition only and Hillary) 29,015,
1936 — Exp. by Hugh Ruttlege 1956 — Swiss Exp. by Dr. _E.
given up due to bad weather Eggler reaches Everest twice,
and monsoon snow 1st. on 23rd May and 2nd. on
24th May.
2
18
HINDUSTAN YEAB-BOOK
ATTEMPTS ON KANCHENJDNGA, 28,146 ft
A. Crowley
E. P. Parmer
Paul Bauar
J. Dyhrenfortli
1905 Br. Expedition led by Dr.
1929 Charles Evans reached
1929 the summit . . 1955
1930
CONQUEST OF JIAJOR mSIALAYAN PEAKS
Trisul by Longstaff
(1907) . . . . 23,406
Do. by Oliver & K.
Singh (1933)
Do. by Indian Expe-
dition (1951)
Jonsong Peak by Prof.
Dyhrenforth (1930) . . 24,472
Kabru by IV. W. Graham, 1883
Annapurna by French
Expedition, leader M.
Hertzog (1950) . - 26,926
Tirich Mir by Nor-
wegian Expedition
(1950) .. .. 25,263
Satopanth by Roch &
Sutter (1947) -- 23,240
Ramthang Peak by Prof.
Dyhrenforth (1930) .. 23,200
MMcut Parbat by A- E.
Riddiford (1951) ., 23,760
Mount Kamct by F. S.
Smythe (1931) -. 25,447
Nanda Devi by Tilman
& Odell (1936) .. 25,645
Dunagiri bv A. Roch
(1939) * .. .. 23,772
Kcdamath bv Roch &
Sutter (1947) .. 22,772
Bandar Punch by J. T.
M. Gibson (1950) .. 20,720
Panch Chuli Peak by P.
Nikore (1953) .. 22,650
Makalu by French Ex-
pedition led by J. Franco 27,824
iC (Godwin Austen) by
Italians (1954) . . 28,250
Mt. Cho-Ogu in Nepalese
Himalayas by Austrian
Expedition (1954) . . 26,967
Nanga Parvat by Ger-
man -Aust., E:^. (1953) 26,029
Mt. Nuninai in Jammu
& Kashmir by French
Exp. (1953) .. 23,410
Mansahi by Japanese
Expedition (1956) .. 26,456
Makalu by French Expe-
dition, (1955) . . 27,824
Kanchenjunga by British
Expedition (1955) . . 28,146
Mt. Lhotsc by Swiss Ex-
pedition (1956) . . 27,970
HIGHEST INDLAN STRUCTURES
•Kutub Minar .. .. 238 Gol Gumbaz (Bijapur) .. 198
Tower of Victory, Chitore 122 Gopuram of Madurai
tlnctoria Memorial . . 182 Temple (Largest one) . . 152
Ochterloney Monument, Cal. 152 Buland Darwaja (Fateh-
4 minarets of Taj (each) 137 pur Sikri) . . . . 176
Taj Mahal . . . . 178 Ihijabai Tower (Univer-
Char Miner (Hyderabad) 186 sity), Bombay .. 260
Calcutta High Court .. 180
*379 steps.
7 from ground level to the base of the victory figure.
INDIAN INFOKMATION
19
OLD & NEW NAMES OP PLACES
Old Names Neiv Names
Calicut . . Kozhikode
Cawnpur . , Kanpur
Bilsa (Bhopal) Bidisa
Muttra . . Mathura
Benares . , Banaras
United Pro-
vinces . . Uttar Pradesh
Central P r o -
vinces
Hyderabad &
Andhra . . Andhra Pradesh
Travancore-
Cochin . , Kerala
Amraoti . . Amaravati
Cocanada . . Kakinada
Conjeeveram Kancheepuram
Ellichpur (M.P.) Achalpur
Ellore Eluru
Jubbulpur . . Jabalpur
Mandi Phul
(Pepsu) .. Pool (Mandi)
Masulipatam Bandar
Old Names New Names
Mayaveram
(Madras) . . Mayuram
Ajmere-Mer-
v?ara . . Ajmer
Vdzagapatnam Visakhapatnam
Trichinopoly Tiruchirapally
Bezwada . . Bijayawada
Ganges . . Ganga
Madura . . Madurai
Eamnad
(Madras) . . Eamanathapu-
ram
Sadulgarh
(Rajasthan) Hanumangarh
Saugor Sagar
Tinnevelly . . Tirunelveli
Tiruvadi
(Madras) . . Tiruvaiyaru
Mau (Jhansi) Mau Rampur
Mau (U.P.) .. Maunath
Bhanjan
INDIAN FELLOWS OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY
A. Carsetji. C. V. Raman. H. J. Bhabha.
S. Ramanujam. Birbal Sahani. S. Chandrasekhar.
J. C. Bose. K. S. Krishnan. P. C. Mahalanobis.
Megnad Saha. S. Bhatnagar.
INDIANS IN THE BRITISH PARLIAMENT
Sir Muncherjee Bhowanagree Lord Sinha of Raipur (House of
(Conservative). Lords).
Dadabhai Naoroji (Liberal). Lord Sinha, Second Baron of
Sapurji Saklatvala (Communist). Raipur (House of Lords).
INDIAN PRIVY COUNCILLORS
Syed Ameer Ali. 1934 — Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru.
Sir B. C. Mitter. 1934 — ^H. H. The Aga Khan.
1921 — Y. S. Srinivasa Sastri. 1936 — Sir Akbar Hydari,
1926— Lord Sinha. 1939 — ^Dr. M. R. Jayakar.
1930 — Sir D. P. Mulla. 1941 — Sir C. Madhavan Nair.
1931— Sir Shadilal.
INDIAN PEER OF THE BRITISH REALM
Sinha, Aroon Kumar (b. 1887).
Heir — ^Hon’ble Sudhindra Sinha (b. 1921).
20
HIOTUSTAI^ YEAE-BOOK
XOBEL PRIZE IVINXERS
1913 — Eabindranatli Tagore, 1930 — Sir G. V. Raman, _
{lAteraturc). {Phystcs).
LENIN PEACE PRIZE
1952 . . Dr. Safinddin KitcHn
1953 .. Major-General S. S. Sokhey
INDIAN WINNERS OF VICTORIA CROSS
(1) Great War, 1914—1918
Ishar Singh (NcUi, 28th Punja- Khndadad Khan {Nail;, 129th
his) Waziristan, 192L Bain.) Great War, 1914.
TMir Dost {Silbadar, Cote’s Ri- Knlbir Thapa {Rifleman, 23rd
fles) Great War, 1915. Gor. Rif.) Great War, 1915.
Shahamad Ehan {Nail:, 89 Pan- Lala {Lancc-Naik, 41st Dogras)
jahis) Great War, 1916. Great War, 1916.
Chatta Singh {Sepoy, 9th Bho- Gorind Singh {Lancc-Dafadcr,
pal Inft.) Great War, 1916. 2Sth Lancers) Great War,
Darwan Singh Negi {Nail;, 39th 1918.
Garhmal Rif.) Great War, Badlu Singh {Ressaldar, 14th
1918. Cavalry) 1918.
Kamabahador Rana {Nail;, 23rd Gabar Singh Negi {Rifleman,
Gor. Rif.) Great War, 1918. 39th Garhmal Rif.) Great War,
1915.
(2) World War, 1939 — ^1945
2nd Lt. Premindra Singh Bhagat
{Indian Engineers) Middle
East, 1941.
Subedar Richpal Ram, 6th Rcj-
putana Rifles {posthumous
Aivard) Middle East, 194L
Havildar Prakash Singh, 8th
Punjab P.egiment, Aiakan,
1943.
Havildar-Major Chhelu Ram, 6th
Rajpntana Rifles {Posthumous)
Tunisia, 1943.
Lt. Col. A. E. Camming (12th
Frontier Force Rifles, Indian
Army), Malaya, 1942.
Habildar Jajee Ghale, 5th Royal
Gorkha Rifles, Chin HBls,
Burma, 1943.
Jem. Abdul Hafiz, 9th Jat Regt.
(Posthumous Avoard) ImphaL
July, 1944.
Subedar Lalbahadur Thapa, 2nd
Gorkha Rifles, Tunisia, 1943.
Rfn. Bhanbhogta Gumng, 2nd
Gorkha Rifles, Burma, 1945.
Rfn. Lacchiman Gurung, Sth
Gorkha Rifles.
Lt. Karamjit Singh, 415th Pun-
jab Regiment (Posthumous),
Burma.
Sepoy Namdeo Jadav, 1st Mar-
hatta Light Infant:^, Italy.
Sepoy Ali Haidar, 6th Frontier
Force Rifles, Italy, 1945.
Major F. G. Blakerj 9th Gorkha
Rifles.
Sepoy Kamal Puim, Sth Punjab
_Eegt., Italy, 1944.
Naik Nand Singh, 11th Sikh
Regt., Arakan Front, 1944.
Rfn. Ganju Lama, 7th Gorkha
Rifles, Imphal, 1944.
INDIAN INFORMATION
21
Indian Winners of Victoria Cross — {Condd.)
Naik Agan Singh Rai, 5th Royal
Gorkha Rifles, Bishenpur, Sil-
char, 1944.
Subedar Netra Bahadur Thapa,
5th Royal Gorkha Rifles {Pos-
thumous), Bishenpur, 1944.
Naik Yeshwant Ghadge, 6th
Mahratta L. I. {Posthumous),
Italy.
Efn. Tul Bahadur Pun., 6th Gor-
kha Rifles, Burma Front, 1944.
Rfn. Sher Bahadur Thapa, 9th
Gorkha Rifles {Posthumous),
Italy, 1944.
Jem. Ram Sarup Singh, 1st
Punjab Regt., Burma {Posthu-
mous).
Capt. M. Allmand, 6th Gorkha
Rifles {Posthumous),
Rfn. Thaman Gurung, 6th Royal
Gorkha Rifles, Italy {Posthu-
mous).
L. Naik Sher Shah, 7/16th Pun-
jab Regiment, Burma {Posthu-
mous).
Naik Gian Singh, 16th Punjabi
Regiment, Burma.
Naik Pazal Din, 10th Baluch.
Regiment, Burma {Posthu-
mous).
Hav. Umrao Singh, Royal Indian
Artillery, Burma,
Sepoy Bhandari Ram, 10th Ba-
luch. Regiment, Burma.
BHARAT RATNA
{The highest award of the Indian Union for exceptional work
for the advancement of art, literature and science and in recognition
of public service of the highest order).
1954 1955
G. Rajagopalachari Bhagwan Das
S. Radhakrishnan M. Visvesvaraya
C, V. Raman Jawaharlal Nehru
PADMA VIBHUSHAN
{The award for exceptional and distinguished service in any
field, including service rendered by the Government Servants).
1954
B. G. Kher
V. K. Krishna Menon
Nandalal Bose
S. N. Bose
Zakir Husain
1955
B. K. Karve
J. R. D. Tata
1956
Fazl Ali.
Sm. Jankibai Bazaz.
G. M. Trivedi.
WINNERS OF PARAM VIR CHAKRA
{Republican India’s highest decoration for gallantry)
Major Somnath Sharma, 4th Bn. 2]Lt. Rama Raghoba Rane, Corps
Kumaon Regt. {Postliumo^is). of Engineers.
LINK Karara Singh, 1st Bn. Sikh Com. Hav-major Piru Singh,
Regiment. Rajputana Rifles, 1963.
22
HINDUSTAN YE3AR-B00K
GOVERNOR-GENERALS OF INDIAN UNION
Lord Louis Mountbatten 1947-48 C. Rajagopalacbari 1948-49
PRESIDENT, INDIAN UNION
Dr. Eajendra Prasad 1950
INDIAN PARLIAMENT
Lofe Sahha : Speakers — G. V. Mavlankar 1952-56.
— Anantasayanam Iyengar 1956 —
Rajya Sahha ; President — ^Dr. S. Radhakrishnan 1952 —
SPEAKER, CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY OF INDIA
Dr. Rajendra Prasad, 1947 — 1949.
INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS PRESIDENTS
(First Session, 1885)
1885 — ^Bombay — ^W, C. EoimeriL 1907 — Surat —
1886 — Calcutta — D. Naoroji. Rash Behari Ghose.
1887 — ^Madras — ^B. Tyabji. 1908 — Madras —
1888 — Allahabad — George Yule. Rash Behari Ghose.
1889 — ^Bombay — 1909 — Lahore —
Sir W. Wedderbum. Pt. M. M. Malaviya.
1890 — Calcutta — Sir P. Mehta. 1910 — Allahabad —
1891 — Nagpur — Sir W. Wedderbum.
P. Ananda Charlu. 1911 — Calcutta —
1892 — ^Allahabad — Bishen N. Dar.
W. C. Bonnerji. 1912 — ^Patna —
1893 — Lahore — D. Naoroji. R. N. Mudholkar.
1894 — ^Madras — Alfred Webb. 1913 — Karachi —
1896 — ^Poona — S. N. Banerji. Nawab Saiyed Muhammad.
1896 — Calcutta — ^R. M. SayanL 1914 — Madras — B. N. Bose.
1897 — Amraoti — _ 1915 — Bombay — Sir S. P. Sinha.
C. Sankaran Nair. 1916 — Lucknow — A. C. Majumdar
1898 — ^ladras — ^A. M. Bose. 1917 — Calcutta — Annie Besant.
1899— Lucknow — ^R. C. Dutt. 1918 — Bombay (Spl.) — ^Hasau
1900 — ^Lahore — Imam.
N. G. Chandravarkar. 1918 — Delhi — ^Pt. M. M. Malaviya
1901 — Calcutta — ^D. E. Wacha. 1919 — Amritsar — Pandit Motilal
1902 — ^Ahmedabad — Nehru.
S. N. Banerji. 1920 — Calcutta (Spl.) — Lala Laj-
1903 — JIadras — Lalmohan Ghose. pat Rai.
1904 — ^Bombay — 1920 — Nagpur — C. Vijayaragha-
Sir Henry Cotton. vachariar.
1905 — ^Benares — G. K. Gokhale. 1921 — Ahmedabad — Hakim Ajmal
1906 — Calcutta — Khan.
Dadabhai Naoroji. 1922 — Gaya — C. R, Das.
INDIAN INFORMATION
23
Indian National Congress Presidents — (Concld.)
1923— Delhi (Spl.)— Abul Kalam
Azad.
1923 — Cocanada — Mahomed Ali.
1924 — Belgaum — ^M. K. Gandhi.
1925 — Cawnpore — Sarojini Naidu.
1926 — Gauhati — Srinivasa Iyen-
gar.
1927 — Madras — Dr. M. A. Ansari.
1928 — Calcutta — ^Pt. Motilal
Nehru.
1929 — ^Lahore — J. L. Nehru.
1931 — Karachi — Sardar V. Patel.
1932 — Delhi — Seth Ranchhodlal.
1933 — Calcutta — Mrs. Nellie Sen
Gupta.
1934 — Bombay — Rajendra Prasad.
1936 — ^Lucknow— J. L. Nehru.
1937 — Paizpur — J. L. Nehru.
1938 — Tripuri — Subhas Bose.
1940 — Ramgarh — A. K. Azad.
1946 — J. L. Nehru.
1946 — Meerut — J. B. Kripalani
1947 — Dr. Rajendra Prasad.
1948 — Jaipur — Dr. P. Sitaramiyya.
1950 — Nasik — P. D. Tandon (re-
signed).
1951 — Meerut— J. L. Nehru.
1952 — Hyderabad — J. L. Nehru.
1963 — Kalyani — J. L. Nehru.
1955- 56— Avadi (60)—
U. N. Dhebar.
1956 — Amritsar (61st) — U. N.
Dhebar.
INDIAN CHRONOLOGY
B.C.
3000 — Hindus Valley civilisation.
2900 to 1500 — ^Period of Vedic
civilisation.
663-483 — Birth and death of
Buddha.
640-468 — Traditional dates of
b i rt h and death of
Mahavira.
377 — B u d d h i s t Council at
Baisali.
326 — Alexander’s Invasion of
India.
324 — Rise of Maurya dynasty.
305 — Seleucus Nicator defeated
by Chandra Gupta
Maurya.
273-232 — ^Reign of Asoka.
269 — M issionaries sent to
foreign lands by Asoka.
68 — Beginning of Vikrama era.
A.D.
78 — ^Accession of Kanishka.
320-500 — Gupta dynasty ;
Golden Age of Indian art,
science and literature.
320 — ^Accession of Samudra
Gupta.
380-416 — Reign of Chandragupta
II (Vikramaditya).
A.D.
405-11 — ^Fa Hien travels in
Gupta Empire.
450-457 — ^Hun invasions.
480-90 — Break up of Gupta
Empire.
606-647 — Reign of H a r s a -
vardhan, Idng of N. India.
629-645 — Hiuen Tsang’s travels
in India.
711 — Arab conquest of Sind by
Mohammed-bin-Qasim.
731 — Yasovarman’s embassy to
China.
735 — ^First Parsi settlement in
India.
760 — Gopala elected king of
Banga-gauda (Bengal).
1000-1026 — Muslim invasions of
India by Mahmud of
Ghazni.
1050 — Atisa Dipankara sent on
Buddhist mission to Tibet.
1192 — Defeat and death of Rri-
thviraj, the last Rajput
King of Delhi.
1190-1290 — Establishment o f
Muslim rule in North
India ; Reign of Slave
Kings.
24
HINDUSTAN YBAE-BOOK
Indian Chronology — (Contd,)
1228 — Conquest of Assam by 1668 — ^Pirst French Factory at
the Ahoms. Surat. _ _
1231-32 — ^The Kutub Minar.
1236 — Death of Htutmish — ^Ac-
cession of Eaziyya.
1236 — ^Foundation of Vijayana-
gar Kingdom.
1320-1414 — ^Tughlak Sultans of
Delhi.
1334-1342 — ^Iban Batuta in India.
1347 — ^Foundation of Bahmani
Kingdom of Deccan.
1398 — ^Invasion of Timur.
1451-1526 — ^Lodi Sultans of
Delhi.
1469 — Birth of Guru Nanak.
1486-1533 — Chaitanya, Saint of
Bengal.
1494 — Foundation of Agra by
Sikandar Lodi.
1498 — Vasco da Gama reaches
Calicut.
1510 — ^Portuguese capture Goa.
1526 — ^Establishment of Mughal
Empire by Babar.
1538-1545 — Reign of Sher Shah.
1565 — Battle of Talikota — over-
throTT of the Vijayanagar
Kingdom.
1556-1605 — Reign of Akbar.
1564— Abolition of Jizya.
1571 — ^Fatehpur Sikri founded-
1586 — ^Annexation of Kashmir
by Akbar.
1597 — Death of Eana Pratap.
1600 — East India Company foun-
ded under Royal Charter.
1605 — Death of Akbar.
1612 — First English Factory at
Surat.
1627-1657 — Reign of Shah Jahan.
1627 — Birth of Sivaji.
1634 — Firman permitting the
English to trade in
Bengal.
1658 — Coronation of Aurangzeb.
1666 — Sivaji’s rdsit to Aurang-
zeb’s court and his impris-
ment and escape.
167o — Execution of „
dur, 10th Gum of the-
Sikhs.
1680 — Death of Sivaji.
1686-87 — ^Fall of the Kingdoms
of Bijapur & Golconda.
1698 — The English obtain Zamin-
dari of the three villages
of Sutanati, Kalikata and'
Gobindapur — ^nucleus of
Calcutta.
1707 — ^Death of Aurangzeb.
1734 — ^Nadir Shah sacks Delhi.
1757 — ^Battle of Plassey.
1761 — ^Third battle of Panipat.
1765 — Grant of Dewani of Ben-
gal, Bihar and Orissa to
E. I. Co.
1770 — ^Famine of Bengal.
1774- 95 — ^Warren Hastings — Go-
vernor General of India.
1775 — ^Execution of Nand Kumar,
1780 — ^Ranjit Singh establishes a
Sikh Empire.
1784 — Pitt’s India Bill passed by
Br. Parliament.
1790 — ^Third Mysore War.
1793 — ^Permanent settlement of
Bengal.
1799 — Death of Tipu Sultan.
Partition of Mysore.
1829 — Brahmo Samaj founded by
Raja Rammohan Roy.
1829 — ^Prohibition of SatL
1833 — ^Death of Raja Rammohan
Roy.
1935 — ^Introduction of English as
medium of instmction.
1839 — Death of Ranjit Singh.
1839-42 — Anglo-Afgan War.
1853 — Opening of Railvrays and
Telegraph.
1854 — ^Wood’s Despatch on Edu-
cation.
1856 — Annexation of Oudh.
1857 — Indian Mutiny.
INDIAN INFORMATION
25 -
Indian Chronology — (Concld.)
1858 — Transfer of India from
Company to the Crown.
1869 — Birth of Mahatma Gandhi.
1874 — Great Famine of Bengal
1875 — Arya Samaj founded by
Dayananda Saraswati
1885 — First Meeting of the In-
dian National Congress.
1905 — Partition of Bengal.
1906 — ^Foundation of the Muslim
League.
1911 — Partition of Bengal re-
voked.
1914 — Gandhi returns to India
from South Africa.
1919 — Montagu-Chelmsford Re-
fer m s ; Jalianwalabag.
massacre at Amritsar
(13th April).
1920 — Non-Co-operation move-
ment in India started.
1925 — Death of C. R. Das.
1930- 34 — C. D. Movement — 1st
session of the Round Table
Conference.
1931 — Gandhi-Irwin Pact.
1935 — Government of India Act
1935,
1937 — Inauguration of Provin-
cial Autonomy. Congress
Ministries in majority of
Provinces.
1942 — Cripps Mission — Quit In-
dia Movement.
1943 — Bengal Famine.
1946 — Cabinet Mission’s Plan —
Interim Government with
Jawaharlal Nehru as
Prime Minister.
1947 — Partition of India — India
becomes independent —
Kashmir attacked by
Pakistan.
1948 — Martyrdom of Mahatma
Gandhi (Jan, 30).
India appeals to U.N. to-
stop aggression by Pakis-
tan in Kashmir (Jan. 2).
1949 — India’s new Constitution
passed into law.
1950 — India becomes Rfepublic
(26th Jan,),
1961 — First Five Year Plan
launched.
1951 — ^First general election in
independent India.
1954 — ^French Settlements in
India merged to India.
NOTABLE INDIANS
Bal Gangadhar Tilak
A. M. Bose
Sir K. Seshadri Iyer
M. G. Ranade, Social Reformer,
Scholar and Jurists
Dr. Mahendralal Sarkar
Sir J. N. Tata
Devendranath Tagore
W, C. Bonerjee, 1st Cong. President
P. Ananda Charlu
Sir V. Bashyam Iyengar
Lalmohan Ghose, Congress
President
R. C. Dutt, Congress President _. .
Girish Chandra Ghosh, Dramatist
Bom
Died
1856
1920
1847
1906
1845
1901
1842
(18 Jan.)
1904
1833
1904
1839
1904
1817
1905
1844
1906
1842
1908
1908
1849
1909
1848
(13 Aug.)
1909
1843
1911
(19 Julyk
(30 Nov.)>
26
HINDUSTAN YEAK-BOOK
G. K. Gokliale, statesman, founder
of Servants of India Society ..
1866
1915
Sir Pherozeshah Melita
1845
1915
S. Ramanujam, Mathematician
• •
1920
Sir Eashbehari Ghose
1845
1921
Ainbica C. Majumdar, Congress
President
1851
1922
Aswini Kumar Dutta
1856
1923
Sir N. G. Chaudavarkar
1855
1923
Sir Asutosh Mukherjee
1864 (29 June)
1924 (25 May)
•C. R. Das
1870 (5 Nov.)
1925 (16 June)
Sir S. N. Banerjee
1848
1925
Sir R. G. Bhandarkar
1873
1925
Lala Lajpat Rai, Indian Patriot
1865
1928
Lord Sinha of Raipur
1863
1928
Syed Ameer Ali
^ *
1849
1929
Tt. Matilal Nehru
, ,
1861 (6 May)
1931 (6 Feb.)
J. M. Sen Gupta
1885
1933 (23 July)
Sir Ali Imam
1869
1932
V. J. Patel
1933
Sir Sankaran Nair
^ ,
1933
Dr. M. A. Ansari
1880
1936
Sir R. N. Mookerjee
1854
1936
Sir J. C, Bose
1858 (30 Nov.)
1937 (23 Nov.)
Sarat Chandra Chatterjee
1867 (15 Sept.)
1938 (16 Jan.)
Sir Muhammad Iqbal
1877
1938
Sir Brojendranath Seal
* ,
1864
1938
l^bindranath Tagore
, ,
1861 (7 May)
1941 (7 Aug.)
Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru
1875
1948
3Iahatma Gandhi
« .
1869 (2 Oct.)
1948 (30 Jan.)
Sarojini Naidu
1879 (13 Feb.)
1949 (1 March)
Sri Aurobindo
1872 (15 Aug.)
1950 (5 Dec.)
Sardar V. Patel
1875
1950 (15 Dec.)
Kristodas Pal, Politicion
. ,
1834
1884
Keshab Ch. Sen, Religious
reformer
1838
1884
Syed Ahmed Khan
1817
1898
Bipin Chandra Pal
1855
1932
Dr. Shyama P. Mukerjee
1901
1953 (23 June)'
Srinivasa Sastri
1869
1946
Dadabhai Naoroji
1825
1917
Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar
1820 (26 Sept.)
1891 (29 July)
Raja Rammohan Roy
1774
1833
Eamkrishna Paramhamsa
1834 (20 Feb.)
1886 (16 Aug.)
“Dayanand Saraswati
1824
1883
Bankim Ch. Chatterjee, Bengali
novelist
•Guru Nanak
1838 (26 June)
1460
1894 (8 April)
1531
Eashbehari Bose, Famous Rcvolu-
tioncst
1870
1944
INDIAN INFORMATION
27
Notable Indians — {Concld.)
Swami Vivekananda
Michael Madhusudhan Dutt
Taru_ Dutt, Indian Poetess
Abanindranatb Tagore
Sister Nevedita
Pandit M. M. Malaviya
Rajendralal Mitra, Historian
Subbas Chandra Bose
Surendranath Banerjee
Ravi Varma, Famous Artist
1862 (12 Jan.)
1824 (25 Jan.)
1856
1871
1867 (26 Oct.)
1861 (26 Dec.)
1842 (15 Feb.)
1897 (23 Jan.)
1848 (10 Nov.)
1848 (29 April
1902 (2 July)
1873 (29 June)
1877
1951
1911 (13 Oct.)
1946 (12 Nov.)
1891 (26 July)
1945 (23 Aug.)
1925 (6 Aug.)
1906 (Sept.)
FIRST IN INDIA
Largest Lake — W u 1 a r Lake,
Kashmir.
Highest Peak — Nanda Devi
(25,645 feet).
Largest populated City — Cal-
cutta (29,82,307) ; including
Howrah 33,44,839.
Highest Waterfall — Gersoppa
Waterfall, Mysore (960 ft.
high).
Largest State — Bombay,
Highest rainfall — Cherrapunji,
426 in. average yearly.
Largest Forest Pr ovine e —
Assam.
Largest Delta — S undarbans
Delta (8,000 sq. miles).
Longest Cantilever Span Bridge
— ^Howrah Bridge.
Largest Cave Temple — ^Ellora,
Hyderabad.
Longest Corridor — Rameswaram
Temple Corridor (4,000 ft.
long).
Largest Mosque — Jumma Mas-
jid, Delhi.
Longest Bridge — Sone Bridge
(10,052 ft. long).
Highest Dam — B a k h r a Dam
(680 ft. High).
Largest Sugar-cane producing
area — Uttar Pradesh.
Most literate parts of India —
Travancore-Cochin.
Longest electric train Service —
Bombay to Poona.
Highest Gateway — Buland Dar-
waja (Fatehpur Sikri, 176 ft.
high).
Tallest Statue — Statue of Goma-
teswar (Mysore), 67 ft. high.
Longest Platform — S o n e p u r
Platform (2,415 feet).
Longest Roaif— Grand Trunk Rd.
(1,600 miles).
Highest Tower — ^Kutub Minar,
Delhi.
Largest Dome — Gol Gambuz,
Bijapur.
Largest Fair of Animals — Sone-
pur fair.
Biggest Zoo — Zoological Gardens,
Alipur, Calcutta.
Largest Museum — Indian Muse-
um, Calcutta.
Most Populated State — Uttar
Pradesh.
Most-thickly popidated State —
Delhi.
FIRST BEGINNINGS IN INDIA
1825 — ^First issue of postal stamp cutta and Diamond Harbour,
in India in Sind. October.
1851 — ^First official telegraph line 1853 — ^First Indian Railway was
opened for traflric between Cal- run between Bombay and Kal-
yan, 16th April.
28
HINDUSTAN TEAB-BOOK
First Beginnings In India — {Concld.)
1954 — ^First postage stamp on aU 1925 — First electric train in
India basis issued on 1st Oct. India ran between Bombay
1S97-9S — First electric plant in- and Kurla.
stalled at Darjeeling. 1929 — First issue of air-maii
1911 — ^First air-maQ in India and stamp in India and the world,
the world from Bamrauli to
Naini (Allahabad) 6 miles.
FIRST AMONG INDIANS
Indian Governor — Lord Sinha of
Raipur.
F.R.S. — A. CarsetjL
Congress President — W. C. Bon-
nerjee.
Nobel Prize vsinner — Rabindra-
nath Tagore.
I.C.S . — Satyendranath Tagore,
Bar-at-Law — J. M. Tagore.
Judge, High Court — Eamaprosad
Roy.
Member, Viceroy's Executive
Council — Sir S. P. Sinha.
Member of the India Council —
Sir Z. G. Gupta.
Peer of the Br. Realm — Lord
Sinha.
TTra7j(7ler of the Cambridge Uni-
versity — ^A. M. Bose.
1st IVoman President of U.N . —
Vijayalakshmi Pandit.
1st troman Minister of the Le-
gislative Assembly — ^Mrs. Yi-
jayalahshmi Pandit, Minister
of U.P.
IF Oman Gov cr no r — Sarojini
Naidu.
Woman President of the Con-
gress — Mrs. Sarojini Naidu.
1st in I.C.S. Exam . — Sir Atul
Chatterjee.
Member of the Br. Parliament
— Dadabhai Naoroji.
Winner of the Victoria Cross-^
Khudadad Khan.
Member of the Privy Council —
Syed Ameer Ali.
il/cni6er of the House of Lords—
Lord Sinha.
Commanderrin-C hie f — General
Cariappa.
I.M.S. — Dr. Goodeve Chuckra-
rarti.
Woman MAl . — Chandramuhhi
Bose.
Test cricket player — K. S. Ean-
jitsingji.
1st Woman Barrister — ^Mrs. Cor-
nelia Sorabji.
Advocate-general — Sir V. Ba-
shyam Iyengar.
hill stations
Ahnora— in _Kumaun_HilIs. Altitude 5,500 ft. above sea level
Mean annual rainfall 4o-oo inches ; fine views of snow. From Al-
mora some of the highest praks of the western Himalayas c“n be
seen a^inst the homon. The main attraction for liickers is the
num and IS c^^ort cen^e for the famous Himalavan fniite'
INDIAN INFORMATION
29
Bangalore — ^The cantonment is the largest in South India.
Bangalore has big industries, large parks and fine public buildings.
Altitude 3,000 ft. above sea level.
Coonoor — on the NUgiri Hills in the Madras State : Altitude
fi,0p0 ft. above sea level. Nearest railway station is Coonoor.
It is reached from Ootacamund by rail.
Chakrata (6,900 ft.) is 21 miles from Mussoorie on the hill-road
to Simla. It is surrounded by huge forests and lovely walks.
Cherrapunji — ^is 30 miles south of Shillong and receives more
rainfall than any other place in the world, the annual average being
426 inches. The nearest railway station is Pandu ; altitude 4,455 ft.
Nainital — is a hill sanatorium in Kumaun HUls, picturesquely
situated on the shores of a beautiful lake. This lake has a super-
ficial area of about 120-5 acres and a mile in diameter. A favourite
summer resort. Altitude 6,350 ft. It is an hour and a half’s dis-
tance by bus from Kathgodam railroad on the N. E. Rly.
Mussoorie — ^is a hill sanatorium, on the southern slopes of the
Himalayas, 14 miles from Dehra Dun overlooking the beautiful Doon
Valley. It is 168 miles from Delhi by good motor road from Dehra
Dun to Mussoorie by motor cars. Altitude 6,600 ft. above sea level.
Nearest railway station is Dehra Dun.
Lansdoione — is situated in Garhwal about half way between
Mussoorie and Nainital. It commands a wonderful view of snows,
the Badrinath block being nearest. It is reached by Northern Ry. to
Kotdwara via Najibabad junction and there is good service of motor
cars, a distance of 26 miles; altitude 6,060 feet.
Mukteshwar — A beauty spot in the Kumaun Hills. It offers a
remarkable view of the surrounding valleys and the mountain gradu-
ally rising up to their snowcapped glory. The Government of India
Veterinary Research Institute is located here,
further west.
Mount Abu — is reached by a good motor road from Abu Road
railway station. The range is about 50 miles in circumference.
The climate is very healthy and delightfully cool. The average tem-
perature is 60°. Altitude 4,500 ft. above sea level. It is a place
of pilgrimage for Jains, for here are celebrated Dilwara temples
containing some of the finest specimens of Jain carving in India,
whilst the temples themselves are prominent alike for their beauty
and as typical examples of Jain architecture.
Pindari Glacier — ^is famous all over the world. It is five days
march from the motor head at Almora. Situated at the heart of
the Himalayas, the Pindari Glacier is more magnificent than Jang
Frau of Switzerland.
Guhnarg — ^is at a distance of 30 miles from Srinagar, and is
one of the finest pleasure resorts of Kashmir, popular for skiing,
trekking and other winter sports.
Dalhousie — Altitude 7,867 ft. above sea level and 52 miles from
Pathankot railway station reached by motor road. It consists of
Fine distinct hills. The Tehra Mall with a level circuit of 15 miles
surrounding the central hillock is a favourite with the visitors.
Darjeeling — Altitude, 7,168 ft. above sea level, magnificent snow
30
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
views of Mount Everest (29,002 ft.) and Kanchenjunga^ (28,104 fQ,
The minimum temperature in winter is about 30°. It is the centre
of a large tea district. It is 369 miles from Calcutta.
Kotagiri — ^is 18 miles from Ooty with an altitude of 6,500 ft.
Kalivvpong — Hill station near Darjeeling. It is also reached
from SUiguri by motor (41 miles). 4,000 ft. high.
Eodaikanal—A hill station in Southern India on the upper range
of the Pulney Hills in the Madurai district. It is 7,000 ft. above the
sea level. The nearest railway station is Kodaikanal Road,
Kasauli — ^A cantonment and convalescent depot in the Simla
district situated on the crest of a hill overlooking Kalka Valley, 22
itiilcs from Kalka by motor road. Famous for Pasteur Institute,
altitude 6,200 ft.
Kulu & Kangra Valleys — ^lie at the foot of the Dhaula Dhar
Range of the Himalayas. Kangra, Jogindemagar, Chamba, Dharm-
sala, Dalhousie and Kulu are some of the chief holiday resorts.
Ktdu and Kangra valleys are known for their orchards and tea
plantations. The valley is about 4,700 ft. high. The main route is
ma Pathankot. Pathankot to Kulu is a distance of 175 miles by
motor. The valley is called the Valley of the Gods due to every
village having its own God.
Ootacaviund — is the leading lull station of South India, situated
in the heart of Nilgiris. Altitude 7,220 ft. above sea level. Mean
annual day temperature is 57-50°F. The place is reached from
Madras by Blue Mountain Express upto Mettupalayam from where
a hill railway conveys to Ooty over a distance of 30 miles.
Mahabaleswar — ^Principal hUl station of the Bombay Presidency
and summer retreat of the Bombay Government. Altitude 4,500 ft.
above sea level. Nearest railway station is Poona, 75 miles.
Matheran — Nearest hUl station of Bombay. It is only 2,650 ft.
high.
Pachmarhi — in Hosangabad, Madhya Pradesh, is 32 miles from
Pipariya Station on Central Ry. The place is only two hours distant
by excellent motor road from the railway station of Pipariya. Pach-
marhi rise 3,500 ft. above sea level. Pachmarhi derives its name
from the “Panch marhi” or ‘five huts’ — actually five caves on a
little hillock. Hindu tradition ascribes them to be the five Pandava
brothers who were supposed to have rested there in’ the course of
their wanderings. But probably the caves were constructed in
earlier Buddhist times.
Ranikhct — is about 40 miles from Nainital and 50 miles from the
railway teiminus of Kathgodam. It is 6,100 ft. high. Set amidst
pine-clad hills, it is more or less a veritable garden town and com-
mands an excellent view of the snows. Its greatest attraction is the
wonderful view it commands of the Central Himalavan range extend-
ing from Nepal to the snowy heights of Badrinath and Tehri Garhwal
Raiiclii— Altitude 2,100 ft. above sea level. Mean annual day
temperature is 74-9 F. Nearest railway station is Ranchi.
Shillong— IS on the Khasi and Jaintia Hills. It is the head-
quarters of the Assam Government. Altitude 4,980 ft. above sea level.
Average temperature in midsummer rarely reaches 80'’F. Cherra-
INDIAN INFORMATION
31
punji, 30 miles south of Shillong holds the world record for rainfall,
average 426 inches per annum (in 1861 the rainfall at Cherrapunji
was 905 inches). Nearest railway station is Pandu (68 miles).
Simla — is perched on the spurs of the lower Himalayas at a
height of 7,000 feet. It is reached by mountain railway connecting
Kalka and Simla. Mean temperature is 55°F, and annual rainfall
is 70". It is now the capital of Himachal Pradesh.
Elevations of Leading Health or Pleasure Resorts
feet feet
Nainital (XJ.P.) . . 6,350 Ootacamund (Madras) 7,220
Mussoorie (U.P.) . . 6,600 Mahabaleswar (Bom.) 4,500
Mount Abu (Rajasthan) 4,500 Amamath (Kashmir) 13,000
Almora (U.P.) .. 6,600 Kasauli (Simla) .. 6,200
Darjeeling (W. Bengal) 7,168 Metheran (Bom.) , . 2,650
Kalimpong (W. Bengal) 4,000 Pachmarhi (M.P.) . . 3,500
Bangalore (Mysore) . . 3,000 Shillong (Assam) . . 4,980
Coonoor (Madras) . . 6,000 Simla (Punjab) . . 7,000
Dalhousie (Punjab) . . 7,060 Srinagar (Kashmir) , . 5,260
Lansdowne (U.P.) . . 6,060 Ranchi (Bihar) . . • 2,100
Kodaikanal (Madras) 7,000 Cherrapunji (Assam) , . 4,465
Kotagiri (Madras) , . 6,600 Gulmarg (Kashmir) . . 8,700
PLACES OF INTEREST IN INDIA
Agra — ^Famous for Taj Mahal and Agra Fort which contain all
the glories of Mughal Empire, such as Dewani Khas, Moti Masjid,
Jasmine Tower, Dewani-i-am, also tomb of .^kbar at Sikandra and
Itmud-ud-Danla.
Amamath — Situated at a height of nearly 13,000 ft. in Kashmir
where thousands of Hindus make pilgrimage in August. There is a
motor service from Srinagar upto Pahalgam (7,200 ft.), 60 miles
from Kashmir where motor road ends. The cave is aljout 50 ft.
high and 50 ft. deep situated between two huge mountains known
as Kailash and Bhaira. At the back of the cave are several ice stal-
agmites in the shape of Ungams — the frozen image of gods Siva,
Parvati, Kartik and Ganesh, all self-made images of ice.
Aurangabad — ^is situated 70 miles from Manmad on the Central
Railway. It has world-renowned temples and monastic caves of
Ellora and Ajanta. There is also the historical fort of Daulatabad,
the Raoza which contains the tomb of the great Mughal Emperor
Aurangazeb and the mag:nificent tomb of Aurangazeb’s wife, Bibi-ka-
Muqbara, replica of the Taj Mahal of Agra. From the city of Au-
rangabad all these places can he visited.
Amritsar — ^is situated in the north-west of the Punjab at a dis-
tance of only sixteen miles from Wagah, the outpost of the Indo-
Paldstan border. It is famous for Sikh golden temple, the most
sacred to the Sikhs and the tank called the pool of immortality.
The pool is enclosed by a wide marble-paved quadrangle 204 ft. long
with an archway over it. In the centre of the pool is the Temple, a
32
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
square building witb marble inlaid walls and dome-shaped roof, under
which shaded by a silken canopy lies Granth Sahib, the holy book ol
the Sikhs. It is also famous for gold and silver thread, carpets. Elite
and pashmina materials. It derived its name from the sacred ta^
on which the golden temple is situated. The town stands on the
main route of the Northern Railway. About two furlongs from the
•Golden Temple is the world-famous Jalianwala Bagh.
Ajvier — city of antiquity and celebrity. Ana Sagar Lake is
famous for its picturesque surroundings. The place is famous for
Darga Khwaja Sahib, the tomb of the famous Muslim saint Muin-ud-
■din Chisbti. The shrine contains the large drums and candle-sticks
taken by Akbar at the siege of Chitor and two mosques, one built by
Akbar and the other by Shah Jahan. At seven miles distance, there
is Pushkar, the most sacred lake of India. Ajmer lies on the rail-
way between Delhi and Alimedabad.
Buddha Gaya — Seven miles from Gaya is the sacred Buddhist
site of Buddha Gaya, where under a bodhi-tree, Buddha conquered
Mara and attained Buddhahood. King Asoka erected a temple near
-the tree. The temple at Buddha Gaya consists of a main tower,
raising to a height of 180 ft. in the form of a slender pyramid.
Bhubaneswar — The new capital of Orissa State ; contains
the famous Lingaraj Temple, Mukteswar Temple and Parasurames-
war Temple, and other temples such as Bhagavati, Parvati,
Anant Vasttdeva, etc. On the hills known as Udaigiri and i^an-
dagiri, a few miles from Bhuvaneswar, are caves once occupied by
Jain monks, containing remarkable carvings, the earliest of which
date to the second century B.C.
Banaras — Sacred city of the Hindus, contains numerous temples.
The view of the ghats is magnificient, close by is the famous Hindu
University. Five miles from the city is the Saranath where in the
Mrigadava or Deer Park, Buddha first preached his doctrine.
Chittorgarh — Famous for the Tower of Victory — contains
wonderful Rajput ruins. It is the old capital of Sisodhiya Rajputs,
the proud descendants of the sun-god who were rulers of Udaipur.
The Tower of Victory was built by Rana Kumbha in commemoration
of his many •victories over Mughal invaders. It lies on the direct
railway route from Ratlam to Ajmer.
DclW— Capital of India since 1911, was the capital of seven
Empires. Some of the famous relics are — Red Fort with Imperial
Palace of Shah Jahan, two Audience Halls, Rangmahal, the Hamam,
Pearl Mosque and the Mumtaz Mahal inside it, Jumma Masjid, Kutub
Minar, Ferozabad, Indraprastha, Tuglukabad etc. Other places of
interest are Tomb of Humayun, famous mosques and historic city
walls. It occupies a strategic position, standing at the head of the
plains of the Ganges and the Indus, the headquarters of all import-
ant railway lines of India.
Bijapnr— ffistorical city in Bombay State, famous for Gol
Canmuz, a perfect whispering gallery and the second largest dome
in the world.
Chidambaram— It is 151 miles from Madras on the Madras-
irichmopoly section of south India. The place is sanctified by the
INDIAN INFORMATION
33
■world famous temple of Nataraja or Siva in his aspect of the
■cosmic dancer,
Fatehjnir Sikri — Short distance of 24 miles from Agra, founded
by Akbar in A.D. 1569 in a lonely eminence on the spot where saint
•Salim Chisti foretold the birth of a son of Akbar. After Akbar’s
death, the city was deserted within fifty years of its foundation, the
reason being lack of water. Interesting places are, imposing pile of
great mosque measuring 542 ft. east and 438 ft. north and south,
the tomb of Saint Sheikh Salim Chisti, houses of Akbar’s wives
Miriam and Jodhbhai. Panch Mahals — ^the building of five storeys,
Hiran Minar, Buland Darwaza, the famous sand-stone chamber of
Dnvani Khas etc. In the Pachisi Court, laid out in red sandstone
squares, he used to play chess with slave girls as piece. This is
the city of sandstone, the specimen of the finest Mughal architecture.
Gwalior — is situated 194 miles from Delhi on the Central Rail-
way, It has long been famous for its grand and imposing Fort.
Humpi (or Vijayanagar) — ^The ruins of this ancient city cover-
ing an extent of about 10 sq. miles on the south bank of Tunga-
bhadra river near Hospet railway station on the Guntakul-Hubli sec-
■tion of the Southern Railway is a witness to the rise and fall of this
forgotten Hindu Empire which is said to be the finest and the great-
est in South India, Humpi is the ruins of Vijayanagar, the ancient
•capital of Vijayanagar Empire. The ruins are virtually a vast open-
air museum of Hindu monuments in the Dravidian style of
architeture.
Hardxoar — ^It is situated at the place where the Ganges issues
forth from the hills on its fertilizing career. Han-ki-Pari is a
place of worship, which is a footmark of Vishnu imprinted on a stone
into the upper wall of the ghat.
Jaipur — The most t^ical Hindu city built of pink stone, was
founded in 1728 by Sawai Jai Singh II. Its avenues and boulevards
cut each other at right angles, dividing the city into straight blocks.
There is also the famous observatory built about 1718 by the
Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh. Haioa Mahal, Ram Niwas gardens,
Albert Hall and Museum are the interesting places to visit. Seven
miles from Jaipur is Amber, a deserted city with an old royal palace
■overlooking the lake at the entrance to a rocky mountain gorge where
Rajput architecture can be seen at its best. Jaipur is famous for
•brass works, stone carving, ivory and sandalwood work, etc.
Jabalpur — 616 miles from Bombay •with an elevation of 1,362
ft. The Marble Bocks are situated 13 miles from Jabalpur. There
rocks are magnesium limestone rocks over 100 ft. high. The finest
impression of the rocks is to be got by moonlight.
Kanyakurmri — The temple of Kanyakumari (the Virgin God-
dess) is situated at Cape Comorin. This is the apex of the Indian
peninsula, where Bay of Bengal, Arabian Sea and Indian Ocean
meet. This is one of the most picturesque spots of India.
Patna — ^is the capital of Bihar and it spreads eight miles along
the Ganga. Things worth seeing at Patna are the huge beehive>
3
34
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
shaped Gola 90 ft. high aad 420 ft. at the base. It xras built at the
time of Warren Hastings for the granary ; Khuda Buksh Oriental
Library is famous for its rare collection of Arabic and Persmn
manuscripts ; the ancient city of Pataliputra lies buried under Patea
which was once the capital of Chandragupta Maurya. It was also
the capital of Asoka. . „ -r-r-
Madurai— -was the capital of Pandiyan Kings and became
famous in the 17th century under the Nayak kings. The huge
temple of Madurai known as Minakshi Temple (Goddess with fish
eyes) is the most famous of the South Indian temples and one of the
finest edifices of Dravidian architecture. It is dedicated to Siva and
his espouse Minakshi. The temple forms a parallelogram, 850 ft.
by 750 ft. and is surrounded by nine gopurams one of which is 150
ft. high. The most elaborate stone carving is found in the Hall of
a Thousand Pillars. The other important buildings are all associat-
ed with the name of Tirumala Naik whose palace is the perfect spe-
cimen of secular architecture in Madras State.
Pushkar — is famous for its lake and fair which is held in Octo-
her-November. The lake is regarded as most sacred in India and
the temple of Brahma close to the lake is supposed to mark the spot
where the incarnation of the God took place.
Kashmir — Altitude varies from 5,000 to 6,000 ft. Srinagar is
the summer capital. It is 5,200 ft. with an area 11 sq. miles ; mean
temperature in January and February is 25°P. Srinagar is now
reached by motor road via Pathankot. Srinagar lies along the banks
of Jhelum which is crossed by seven bridges. Kashmir has beauti-
ful Mughal gardens built by the Mughal Emperors of Delhi, such as
Shalimar gardens, Nishat Bag, Nasim Bag and Chashme Shahi.
Following are the heights of some prominent places of Kashmir —
Srinagar 6,200 ft. ; Gulmarg 8,700 ft. ; Phalgam 7,000 ft. ; Amamath
13,000 ft. Places worth seeing in Kashmir are — ^Phalgam 60 miles
from Srinagar ; Dal Lake ; Amamath — 97 miles from Srinagar.
Lucknow — is the capital of Uttar Pradesh. The grandeur of the
city dates from Asaf-ud-daula, the fourth Nawab. Luclcnow is
known as the city of gardens. Outstanding among its buildings are
the great Imambara with a hall 162 ft. long and 54 ft. wide, the
Husainabad Imambara, Eumi Darwaza, Chattar Manzil and the
Wingfield Park.
Nalanda — Nalanda University was founded in the epoch of the
Oupta kings and became one of the largest universities of Asia.
Hien Tsang, the well-known Chinese traveller who studied at the
university in the 7th century has left glowing accounts of its acti-
vities. It consisted of 10,000 scholars lodged in special hostels en-
dowed by foreign kings. Instruction was provided in separate col-
vast library spread over three buildings. It flourished
for 700 yearn until destroyed by fire by foreign invaders in the 12th
eas^ards on the road from Patna stands
Bakhtiarpur. Here a road branches off due south to Bihar Shariff
leads to Nalanda station (6 miles),
irom the station the excavation site is 2 miles. Throughout the
distance of 56 miles from Patna, the roads are serviceable all the
INDIAN INFORMATION
35
year round. The site has been excavated by the Archaeological De-
partment of the Government of India.
Saranath — is five miles outside Banaras. In the ‘Deer Park’ of
Saranath, Gautama Buddha preached his First Sermon on Nirvana.
The ruins of monastaries built more than 1,600 years ago draw
Buddhist pilgrims from all over the world. Here stands the famous
Asoka Pillar of polished sandstone whose lion capital was adopted
by the new republic of India as the state emblem. The museum of
Saranath contains may superb specimens of ancient art.
Udaipur — is one of the most beautiful cities in India.
The city is completely encircled by a bastioned wall to which there
are five main gates or poles. It stands in a valley amid green hills
on the banks of a large lake with little islands. On these rise from
the water’s edge marble palaces of pure white that glisten in the
sunlight.
Maliabalipiiram — Also known as seven pagodas, on the coast of
Bay of Bengal, 63 miles south of Madras. Easily accessible by
roads, it is 18 miles from Chingleput on the Madras-Trichinopoly
section of the Southern Railway. Monuments of Mahalipuram are
heivn out of solid rock — such as (1) Five rathas, (2) Mahisasura
Mandapa, (3) Krishna Mandapam, (4) Arjuna’s penance. These are
the finest specimens of rock-cut and has relief figures in India.
Tinichirapalli — ^Till recently known as Trichinopoly, is 213
miles from Madras. The place has a famous rock Temple and also
Teppakulam, a large tank with a mandapam in the middle.
Tanjore — on the main line of the metre gauge section of the
Southern Railway lies Tanjore, the last capital of the Chola
Dynasty. The place is famous for its great Sri Brahadiswara
Temple, known throughout the world for its massive architectural
excellence.
Bameswaram — At the extreme south-eastern limit of Indian
peninsula stands Rameswaram where the great Rama himself is
believed to have offered worship to Siva to expiate the sin of having
killed in battle Ravana, the ten-headed ruler of Lanka. Rameswaram
is little over two miles from Madurai and can be reached by a small
branch line off Pamban, on the Dhanushkadi route. The temple of
Sri Ramanathaswamy dates back to the 16th century. The glory
of the temple is in its corridors. These extend to a total length of
nearly 4,000 feet. Here the side coixidors are 700 feet long and
open into transverse gallaries as rich in defect as themselves.
ARCHITECTURAL & HISTORICAL LANDMARKS
HINDU & BUDDHIST
Ajanta Frescoes — Famous frescoes in the Buddhist caves of
Ajanta, a village in Hyderabad State. It is reached by motor from
Jalgaon station on Western Ry. — 37 miles from the station. The
caves of Ajanta consist of 24 monasteries and 6 temples, some
of which are 2000 years old. They are excavated on a wall of almost
perpendicular rock, 259 ft. high, sweeping round in a hollow
circle and extending a third of a mile from east to west. These
36
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
caves are situated in tlie horse-shoe valley. Frescoes are now ranked
among the masterpieces of the world’s art. The frescoes at Ajanta
may be divided into narrative scenes, portraiture and decoration and
illustration in the life of Buddha. . t • x, i =
Ambar Palace — In the deserted capital of Jaipur, this Palace
is considered to include the finest specimens of Rajput architecture.
Barhut — Central India. The sculptures on the stone railing
surrounding the Barhut stupa (second century B.C.) represent, with
most careful exactitude, episode in the life of the Buddha and the
former lives.
Buddhist caves at Rarli — One of the most famous of rock-cut
temples. It is the largest and the most harmonious. It dates from
the first century B.C. It is 124 ft. long and 45 ft. wide internally.
Bodh-Gaija Temple — ^The temple is built on the site of a
shrine erected by the Emperor Asoka. It commemorates the
moment when Gautama meditating under the trees of Bodhi attained
enlightenment and quality of Buddha after seven years of mental
conflict and penance. The tower of the temple of Bodh-Gaya rises
to the height of 180 feet.
Black Pagoda — Close to the sea-coast, north of Puri, stands the
700 years old Konark temple. Legend runs that the Sun-God was
once seen here rising out of the sea in his golden chariot. Where
his shadow fell, devotees endeavoured to build a temple in the shape
of the God’s chariot, complete with twenty-four wheels and seven
horses. Tliough now partly in ruins, their symphony in stone still
ranks as one of the India’s greatest architectural splendours. 24
miles out of Puri, the road leading to Bhubaneswar, branches off at
Pipli towards Konark, which lies 29 miles away. This road is moto-
rable only between December and June. There is an inspection bun-
galow near the temple, but no refreshments are available.
Bclur Temple — Known as (^enna Kesava Temple, is situated
in the Mysore State, the temple is one of those exquisite specimens
of Hoysala architecture, built 1117 years ago by the munificence of
the Hoysala King, Vishnuvardhana. Ferguson says — ^'Ihere are
many buildings in India which are unsurpassed for deUcacy of detail
by any in the world, but the temple of Belur surpasses even these
for freedom of handling and richness of fancy.’
Chitore Fori — Symbolises the spirit of bravery and heroism of
Gohilward and Sisodia Kings of Mewar. Chitore was the capital
of gohilward and Sisodia King of Mewar from the 8th to the 16th
century. The fort presents a vast panorama of temples, imposing
palaces and towers which are now mostly in ruins. The most famous
in the Tower of Wctory which was built by Rana Kumbha to comme-
morate his victory over Sultan Mohammad Kliilji of Malwa in 1440.
_ Bihvara Tcmpics— Near Mount Abu, the principal hill station of
Ra3asthan are the wonderful Dilwara Temples. Five in number,
they date from the 11th, 12th and 13th century and are built entirely
carvings which decorate the interior walls and
pillars of the temples are fantastically lavish, vet the general im-
pression IS one of perfect harmony. The Temples are the Mmala
INDIAN INFORMATION
37
Shah, buDt in 1032 and the temple of the two brothers Vastupala and
Tejpala built between 1197 and 1247.
Elephanta Caves — ^The Elephanta Island is about 6i mUes
north-east of Apollo Bunder in Bombay harbour. There are seven
caves in all, but the main cave marked No. 2 which contains the Siva
shrine is the most important and contains the sculptured panels. The
great three-faced idol representing Trimurti is the most striking
among the sculptures in the caves.
Ellora Caves — ^These caves can be conveniently reached from
Aurangabad on Western Railv/ay and it is 71 miles from Manmad.
The caves lie at a distance of 14 miles from Aurangabad.
Ellora cave temples, 34 in number are perhaps the largest and most
varied in India. There are three classes of caves, Hindu, Buddhist
and Jain. Excavated in the scarp of a large rocky plateau, they are
remarkable memorials of these great faiths. The most marvellous
of all is the stupendous rock-cut temple of Kailasa, elaborately
carved inside and outside. Hewn entirely out of solid rock, with its
massive pillars and colonades, intricate gallaries, painted ceilings
and huge sculptures, Kailasa is one of the world’s wonders.
Gwalior Fort — is one of the most impressive strongholds of
mediseval India. The ascent to the fortress is like that of some
fabled palace of the Arabian Nights. Of the many palaces within
the walls, the most splendid is that of the Man Singh.
Golden Temple — At Amritsar, the famous Sikh Temple. The
temple stands on a raised plinth 65 ft. square in the centre of the
tank and is surrounded by verandas.
Gomatesivara — Near the town of Sravana Belgola in the State
of Mysore, is the giant figure of Gomateswara, the Jain sage. The
figure is 67 ft. statue and is carved out of a single stone at the top
of a hill. The image is probably 2,000 years old.
Iron Pillar — only a few yards from Katub Minar stands the
famous Iron Pillar of Chandra Varman, the Hindu King of
Pushkaran. It is a solid shaft of wrought iron about 16 inches in
diameter and 23 feet 8 inches in height. Purity of iron (99.97 p.c.),
accounts for the absence of rust despite its exposure to sun and
rain for over 1500 years.
Mahabalipuram — or Seven Pagoda is situated on the south coast
of Mai-as. Its temples are bas-reliefs and are cut from living rocks.
The most famous is the ‘Descent of the Ganges’. This giant image
dating from the seventh century is cut in a ^anite rock 90 ft. long
and 43 ft. high. Another famous sculpture is ‘Vishnu reclining on
the snake Ananta’. “Arjun’s Penance,” another bas-relief is the
largest bas-relief in the world.
Meenakshi Temple — Madurai is remarkable for its most pictu-
resque temple, the Meenakshi Temple with its magnificent Gopurams.
The Great Temple dedicated to the Goddess Meenakshi forms a
parallelogram, 850 ft. by 750 ft. and is surrounded by nine Gopurams,
one of which is 150 ft. high. One of its principal structures is the
Hall of thousand pillars in which groups of figures are carved from
single stone.
Sanchi Tope — ^Famous Buddhist stupa in the Bhopal State, 26
38
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
miles from Bhopal. Stupa is a hemispheriral mon^ent of hricks or
stones. Sanchi Stupa is one of the _ oldest (third-first centu^
B C ) and best preserved Stupas of India. Stupa stands in the pp
of a small hill and enclosed by the finest and oldest stone railmg
in India. The stupa is 120 ft. in diameter and 56 ft. high. The most
striking features of the Stupa are the gates which face four carainal
points and measure 28 ft. 5 in. to the top of the third aphitectoe
Q.nd are profusely carved with, scenes from Jataha stories. Xsear
the Stupa is the new memorial erected to preserve the remains of
the famous disciples of Buddha, Sariputta and Mangalana.
Tower of Victory, Chitore — ^A famous Hindu monument raised
hy Sana Humhha in 1450 to commemorate his victory over the com-
bined armies of Malwa and Guzarat. It consists of nine stories and
is 122 ft. high.
Sirguya Frescoes — ^Are the earliest dateable Indian paintings.
These are a group of Buddhist frescoes (100 B.C.) on the walls of a
cave in Sirguya in Madhya Pradesh.
Temple of Bhubaneswar — ^Near Puri, most famous of these are
Rafrani and lAngaraj Temples. Eajrani Temple, erected in the 11th
century is a gigantic tower covered with statues and surmounted
hy receding layers of stones, the whole inward-curving tower ending
in a great circular crown and a spire. Lingaraj Temple is the most
perfect example of north Indian architecture.
Kajuraho Temples — ^At Kajuraho in Bundelkhand are grouped
about thirty temples dedicated to Siva, Vishnu or Jina. They date
from about 950 to 1050. These temples are unrivalled for profusion
of ornate detail. In the Kandarya Mahadeva temple, the largest of
the group, the details of bewildering complexity are massed together
to form a perfectly balanced unity.
Saranath — At Banaras, there is the great Buddhist Stupa, a
stupendous stone structure 104 ft. in height and 93 ft. in diameter.
It commemorates the fact that here Gautama Buddha preached his
doctrine to his first five disciples.
Temple of Sri Rangam — ^^^o miles north of Tiruchirapalli, on an
island formed by the bifurcation of the river Cauvery is Srirangam,
famous for the temple of Vishnu which contains a hall of thousand
columns and sacred shrine of Eanganathaswami.
Ramcswaram Temple — ^The temple of Eameswaram is probablv
the most perfect specimen of art in the Dravidian style. The holy
town of Eameswaram is built on an island in Palk Straits. The
great temple is in the form of quadrangular enclosure 650 ft. broad
hy 1,000 ft. long. Its glory lies in its vast pillared corridors which
extend to a length of nearly 4,000 feet.
MUSLIM
Fatchpnr Sikri — 23 miles from Agra stands the city of palaces
built of red_ sand-stone by Akbar in 1569-1584. hlost important
piece of art is Buland Darwaja, 176 ft. high built in commemoration
of the conquest of Khandesh. Though the citv was abandoned for
lack of adequate water supply, what remains of its deserted glory
INDIAN INFORMATION
39
as enough to testify to the perfection which Indo-Muslim architecture
had attained in the reign of Akbar. Fatehpur Sikri stands authentic
witness of Akbar’s splendid effort to achieve a synthesis between
Hindu and Muslim cultures.
Gol Gambuz — At Bijapur, is the 2nd largest dome in the world.
This has a floor area of 18,110 sq. ft. This is the largest space
covered by any single dome, second largest being that of Pantheon at
Rome v;hich has a floor area of 16,833 sq. feet. If the pendentives
are also taken into account, the Gol Gambuz is the greatest domed
roof in the world too. It was built in 1656 by Sultan Mohamed Adil
Shah to be his last resting place. The 11 ft. wide world-famous
whispering gallery hangs out in the interior of the building 109 ft.
■6 ins. above the floor. The surface measurement of the dome includ-
ing four octagonal towers is 205 sq. ft. and the height of the building
from the base to the apex of the dome is 198 ft. 6 in. The exterior
diameter measures 144 ft. whilst interior diameter is 134 ft. 6 in.
Kutah Minar (238 ft. high) at Delhi — Is one of the masterpieces
of Indian technology and art. It is the highest stone tower in India.
It was completed by Kutab-ud-din-Aibak in 1199 and further deve-
loped by Iltutmish in 1229, It is the first outstanding structure in
the Islamic style. It is made of red stone and marble. It has five
storeys separated by projecting balconies.
The Fort, Agra — originally built by Akbar, the Fort saw many
additions in the reign of the great builder, Shah Jahan, Its walls,
70 ft. high with octagonal towers and crenellated ramparts enclose
many relics of old splendour, great courtyards, gateways, audience
halls, mosques and royal apartments.
Red Fort, Delhi — The walls of Red Fort enclose the former great
imperial palace of Shah Jahan. The wonders of Red Fort recall the
pomp and pageantry, the wealth and magnificence of Mughal times.
Built by the emperor Shah Jahan between 1639-1648, the fort is
famous for its Diwan-i-lchas, Pearl Mosque etc.
Jama Masjid — Known as India’s finest and biggest mosque.
Jama Masjid was built by the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan at
Delhi during the period 1660-58. The masjid, raised on a lofty base-
ment, is 201 feet in length by 120 feet and is flanked by two minarets
130 ft. high.
Mausoleum of Sher Shah — ^At Sasaram, is a gigantic solid and
masculine example of Moslem architecture standing in the middle of
a large tank. 350 miles from Calcutta by Grand Trunk Road, Sasa-
ram stands in the left bank of the Sone river.
Tai Mahal — ^Most famous tomb built by Shah Jahan in memory
of his beloved wife — arises with its slender minarets in the midst of
magnificent gardens. It is the result of collaboration between Indian,
Turkish and European artists. The height of the dome is about
230 feet.
THE CALENDAR
INDIAN CALENDAR — ^The Bikram or Samvat frz is most:
-svidelv lised specially in northern India, Rajasthan, Gujarat and is
believed to have been established by Vikrama^tya, the king qi
Ujjain to commemorate his victory over Saka kings. But there is
dispute over the identity of Vikramaditya as there are so many kings
bearing this name. It commenced on February 23, 57 B.C. Samvat
is a lunisolar year. . „ t j-
The Saka or Sakabda era is used m some parts of South Indim
There is a historical dispute as to the origin of this era. It is said
to date from the Saka king, Salibahana or it begins -with the corona-
tion of the Rushan king Kaniska, and dates from 3rd March, 78 A.D.
Bengali Year rvas originaUy a reckoning for agricultural and
revenue purposes instituted at the time of Emperor Akbar. In
A.D. 1555-6 corresponding to Hijri 962-3, solar computation rvas in.,
troduced to the Muslim era Hijri vchich became the Fasli or harvest
era of northern India and vas adopted as the current official era
in Bengal.
Other Eras — ^Tho Buddha era from 543 B.C. and Chaitanya era
from 1407 AD.
Kali Yuga — ^The oldest era of India is Kali Yuga. The Rail
Tuga began on the 18th Feb., S102 B.C. Thus the EaR Tuga is 5058
in 1956._
India’s National Calendar — Saka Year — The Government of
India’s Calendar RefoTO Committee in their renort in 1955 re-
commended the nationwide adoption of the Saka Year for the pur-
poses of a unified National Calendar. The Saka Tear which begins
on March 22 (March 21 in a leap year) has 365 days normally and 36?
in a leap year. The 12 months of Saka Year are as follows: — ^number
of days in the month and the first dav of the month (corresponding
to the Gregorian Calendar) being shoiro in paranthesis : Chaitra (30
except in a leap year ; March 22 except in a leap year) ; Vaisakha
(31, April 21); Jaistha (31, May 22); Ashara (31, June 22); Srarana
(31, July 23); Bhadra (31, Aug. 23^ Asvina (30, Sept. 23); Kartika
(30, Oct. 23); Agrahayan (30, Nov. 22); Pausa (30, Dec. 22); Magha
(30, Jan. 21); Phalgnna (30, Peb. 20). The Government of India
has announced on 23rd October 1956 that from 1957, they have intro-
duced a new calendar as recommended bv the Calendar Reform
Committee.
India begins a new year’s day on 22nd March. The day is 1st
^ait:^ the y^_r 1879 of the Saka era. The succeeding months will
be Yaisabna, Jaistna, Ashara, SrabaTia, Bhadra — each of 31 days aTid
Aimna, Kartika, A^^hayana, Paasa, Magha and Phalguna, each SO
days. ^ Chaitra Tnll have 30 days except in a leap year vrhen it will
have ol. The Central Government has decided to adopt the new
calendar for certain official purposes in conjunctin with Gregorian
THE CALENDAR
41
(current) calendar. It is made clear, however, that Gregorian calendar-
should continue to be used as hitherto for official and like purposes.
The Government says there would be no deviation from the prevailing
custom in the observance of holidays and it is not the intention that
the new calendar should necessarily be followed for religions purposes.
MAHOMEDAN CALENDAR — ^The Mahomedart era is based on
Hijra or flight of Mahomed from Mecca to Medina. The first day
of the era is not the actual date of flight but 16 th July, 622 A.D.
Hijra is a purely lunar year consisting of 12 months containing in
alternate sequence 30 or 29 days, -with the intercalation of one day
at the end of the 12th month at stated intervals in each cycle of
30 years, the object of the intercalation being to reconcile the date
of the first of month with the date of the actual new moon. The
mean lengrth of Hijra Year is 354 days 8 hours and 48 minutes and
the period of mean lunation is 29 days 12 hours 44 minutes.
MODERN CALENDAR— The Roman Calendar had at first Kk
months and 304 days, each month being divided into Kalends, Nones
and Ides. The Julian calendar introduced 45 B.C. by Julius Caesar
added 66 days with an extra day in February every 4th year, thus
gi-ving what we now call Leap Year. This Calendar was re-vised by
Pope Gregory XIII (1502.85) who declared that 5 Oct. 1582 should
be called 15 Oct., thus losing 10 days and also that a century should’
not be a Leap Year unless exactly dmsible by 400, hence 1900 was
not a Leap Year hut 2000 -will he. This Gregorian calendar has heen
adopted almost everywhere.
JEWISH CALENDAR— is luni-solar, that is to say, the year
is solar and month are lunar. In a cycle of 19 years the 1st, 2nd,
4th, 6th, 7th, 9th, 19th, 12th, 13th, 15th, 16th and 18th year have
12 months and the remaining years 13 months of 29 or 30 days each.
The length of the ordinary year may be 353, 354 or 355 days and'
that of the leap year 383, 384 or over 385 days ; thus the mean
length of the year over a 19-year cycle is just over 365 days. The-
years are reckoned from the creation of the world, the date of which
is taken to be 3760 B.C. Tlius the year A.D. 1938 is A.M. {Anna
Mundi) 6698-99. The day begins at sunset for the purpose _ of
observing the Sabbath and the various feasts and fasts._ The time
is 2 hours 21 minutes in advance of Green-wich time, being that of
meridian of Jerusalam.
ZOROASTRIAN CALENDAR — is employed by ’ Zoroastrians in
India and Iran which began in June 16, A.D. 632.
BUDDHIST CALENDAR— It is reckoned from the death of
Buddha in 643 B.C. (the actual date being 487 B.C). The Buddhist
year begins from Vaisakhi Pumima. Buddha was_ bom on the
Baisakhi full moon day, he took his seat under Bodhi -tree at Gaya
on full moon day to attain -wisdom. It was on the full moon day
again that he left the world.
HINDU CALENDAR — ^Hindus have employed luni-solar cycles
made by the combination of solar years and lunar years so -treated
as to keep the beginning of the lunar year near that of the solar
42
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
year. In some parts of India solar years are used while in other
parts lunar is followed : . , . . „ . , -ii.
The solar year is divided into 12 months in accordance with tne
successive Sankrantis or entrances of the Sun into the sidereal signs
of zodiac. The names of the signs are as follows :
Mesha, the ram (Aries).
Vrishabha, the bull (Taurus)
Mithuna, the pair ((Semini).
Karkata, the crab (Cancer).
Sinha, the lion (Leo).
Kanya, the maiden (Virgo).
Tiila, the scale (Libra)
Vrischika, the scorpion (Scorpio).
Dlianus, the bow (Sagittarius).
Makara, the sea monster (Capri-
corns).
Kumbha, the water pot (Acqua-
rius)).
Mina, the fishes (Pisces)..
But these are also hnown in some parts by another set of names
preserving connection with lunar months — Chaitra, Vaisakha,
Jaistha, Ashara, Sravana, Bhadra, Asvina, Kartika, Margasirsa or
Agrahayan, Pausa, Magha and Phalguna.
The astronomical solar month runs from the moment of one
Sankranti of the sun to the moment of the neirt Sankranti and as
the signs of the Hindu zodiac are all of equal len^h, 30 degrees,
while the speed of the sun varies according to the time of the year,
the length of the month is variable.
The days of solar month be^n with sun-rise. The days arc
named as follows: Ravivara, the day of sun (Sunday); Somvara,
the day of the moon (Monday) ; Mangalvara, the day of the Mars
'(Tuesday) ; Biidhvara, the day of Mercury (Wednesday) ; Brihas-
pativara, the day of Jupiter (Thursday); Sukravara, the day of
Venus (Friday) ; Sanivara, the day of Saturn (Saturday).
The lunar year consists of primary 12 lunar months. It is of
two principal varieties according as it begins with a certain day in
the month of Chaitra or with the corresponding day in Kartika.
The present names of the lunar months were derived from 12 out
of the 27 Nakshatras, supposed to be companions of the Moon during
12 full-moon nights.
Important Eras — The beginning of important eras are as
follows —
B.
C.
Macedonian
Sept.
1
312
Grecian
• •
Sept.
1
5598
Augustan
Feb.
24
27
Julian Period
Jan.
1
4713
Jewish
Oct.
3761
A.
D.
Olympiards
a .
July
1
776
Christian
Jan.
1
1
Foundation
of
Armenian
July
7
562
Rome
April
24
753
Muslim
July
16
622
NAMES
OF
MONTHS — January was named
from
Janus,
god
•who presided over the beginning of ever^hing. February from
Febriia, a festival of purification held in that month by the Romans.
Maritus is the Mars, who was originally a god of agriculture, his
month being the one when crops are ordinarily planted. The origin
of April is not kno-wn. Jlay is named from Maia, the mother of
■Roman god Mercury. June is derived from Juno, the goddess of
women and of marriage. July was formerly called quintilius from
■qmntiis, the fifth, but -when Julius C:Bsar reformed the calendar,
THE CALENDAR
43
lie changed the month’s name to Julius in his own honour ; Julius
became July in English. August was originally called sextilis, after-
wards was named August from the Emperor Augustus. Those from
September to December are so called from the numbers Septem,
■‘seven’, Octo., ‘eight’, November, ‘nine’ and December, ‘ten’.
YEAR — Unit of time is marked by the revolution of the earth
in its orbit round the sun. The Solar Fear is 365 days 5 hours, 48
minutes 49-7 seconds. Calendar Year consists of 365 days, but a
year the date of which is divisible by 4 -without remainder is called
Leap Year and consists of 366 days, one day being added to the
month of February. The last year of a century is not leap year unless
its number is dmsible by 400 i.e. the years 1800 and 1900 had only
365 days. Tropical Year is the time that earth takes to revolve
Tound the Sun from equinox to equinox or 365.2422 mean solar days.
Sidereal Year in which the observation is made on a star is 365 days,
•6 hrs. 9 mins. 9 secs.
TIME — ^Measurement of time is based on the time taken by
■earth to rotate on its axis {day) ; by moon to revolve round the earth
(month); and by the earth to revolve round the sun (year); Day
•starts at midnight and is divided into 24 hours of 60 minutes, each
■of GO seconds. The hours are counted from midnight up to 12 at
-noon and these hours are designated A.M. and again from noon up to
12 at midnight, which hours are designated P.M. The 24-hour
reckoning however ignores A.M. and P.M. and the hours are num-
bered 0 to 23 from midnight to midnight.
Different ways of telling time — ^The usual division of the day into
■“A.M.” (ante meridian) and “P.M.” (post meridian) groups of 12
hours each has given way for same purposes to the “24-hour” day
in many countries. On the “24-hour” clock the hour begins ■with
zero at midnight and run to 23 ; thus 1-30 P.M. is called 13-30 o’clock,
it is simpler than the 12-hour system and makes calculation easier,
and so on. This system is in general use on railway systems. Since
astronomers and navigators use it for tables and records.
On ship board varieties of time are used. "Greemoich time"
or time corresponding to that at Green-wich, England, is kept by
an accurate chronometer for use in determining the ship’s position.
The ship’s routine is however governed by "watches” and "bells.”
The day is dmded into six “watches”, commencing at noon and each
watch is dmded into eight parts marked by “bells.” One half an
hour after a watch begins, “one bell” is struck. Half an hour later,
or one hour after the commencement of watch, “two bells” strike,
and so on upto “eight bells” when the watch changes and the bells
■strike all over again from one to eight.
Astronomers usually use sidereal time, which is fixed by observ-
ing the transits of the stars. A sidereal day is the period of one
rotation of the earth upon its axis. It starts at noon and contains
■24 hours 56 minutes and 4 seconds of mean solar time. A sidereal
year contains 3665 sidereal days.
Local Time — When the system of local time is used, it is 12
o’clock (noon) at any region where sun is at its highest point in the
sky, and shadows are cast in a line extending north and south.
44
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Standard Time — is the system of time established by common
usage or legislative action in any part of the world. Standard time-
is the local time of standard meridian, but used over an entire time
zone. The system of Standard Time by zones has been gradually
accepted which differs from that of Greenwich by an integral number
of hours, either fast or slow.
Thne Zones — ^The 15 degree measurement divides Europe into-
three time-zones — Greenwich, Mid-European (one hour faster).
East European (2 hours faster). United States and Canada are
divided into five time-zones — Atlantic, Eastern, Central, Mountain
and Pacific,
Examples of Zone System : —
Fast on Greenwich Time
12 hrs. F .. Fiji, New Zealand,
hrs. F . . South Australia.
9 hrs. F .. Manchuria, Japan,
Korea.
8 hrs. F . . East China, Philip-
pine Islands, "West
Australia, I n d o -
China.
VJhrs. F .. Malaya, Singapur,
Java.
6i hrs. F . . Burma, Andaman
6 hrs. F . . East Pakistan.
55 hrs. F . . India, Ceylon.
45 hrs. F .. West Pakistan.
Greenwich . . Great Britain, Ire-
land, Portugal, Al-
geria, French Mo-
rocco, etc.
Slow on Greenwich Time
1 hr. S . . Iceland.
3 hrs. S . . Greenland, Urugu-
ay, Argentina.
4 hrs. S . . {Atlantic) Canada,
Central Brazil, Bo-
livia, Chile.
5 hrs. S .. {Eastern) E.
States of U. S. A.,
Cuba, Panama,
Colombia, Equador.
35 hrs. F .. Iran.
2 hrs.F .. {East European}
Turkey, Greece,
Finland, Egypt,
Israel, Syria, South
Africa.
1 hr. F . . {Mid. European)
Sweden, Norway,
Netherlands, Ger-
many, France,
Austria, Yugosla-
via, Switzerland,
Hungary, Czecho-
slovakia.
7 hrs. S . . {Mountain) Cana-
da from 102 °W to
120 'W, Mountain
States of U. S. A.,
Part of Mexico.
8 hrs. S . . {Pacific) Canada
West of 120°W,
Western States of
U. S. A.
10 hrs. S . . Central Alaska,
Hawaii.
11 hrs. S . . Aleutian Is., West
Coast Alaska,
Samoa, Christmas
Islands.
Summer Time or Daylight Saving Tmic— Device to make more
sunlight hours available for business, industry, leisure by setting all
clocks forward one hour during summer, when sun rises earlv thus
saving evening use of artificial light. This device was first’ used
as national economy during World War I.
Greenwich Mean rime— The International Meridian Conference
held in 1884 established the meridian passing through Greenwich,
THE CALENDAR
45
England as the prime meridian, from which the world’s time was to
he reckoned. The world is considered as being divided into 24 zones
each of 15° of arc, or one hour in time apart. The meridian of
Greenwich (0°) extends through the centre of the initial zone and
the zones to the eastwards are numbered from 1 to 12 with the prefix
‘minus’ indicating the number of hours to be subtracted to obtain
Greenwich time. The zones to the westward are similarly numbered,
hut prefixed ‘plus’ showing the number of hours that must be added
to get Greenwich time.
International Date Line — ^is an imaginary line extending north
and south through Pacific Ocean, and is the point at which the tra-
veller must add or subtract a day from the calendar. On a journey
westward across the Pacific, he must add a day (for example, by
changing Monday, the 17th to Tuesday, the 18th) ; when travelling
■eastward, he is required to set the date back one day, otherwise he
will not be in accord with the local date when he returns to his
starting place after making trip round the world.
Indian Standard Time — ^The Indian Standard Time which is
■5i hours ahead of Green-wich Mean Time was first adopted on 1st
January 1906. It was based on the mean time of 82J°E longitude
which passes through Banaras and Cocanada. Though it was used
hy Railways and Post and Telegraph Offices, Calcutta had its own
time 24 minutes ahead of it. During "World "War II, a uniform time
hours ahead of Greenwich time was adopted in India. India now
observes Indian Standard Time, which is 5i hours ahead of
Greenwich.
Longest and Shortest days — Longest day is the day on which the
Bun attains its greatest distance from the equator, north or south,
accordingly as the place is in the northern and southern hemisphere.
This generally falls on June 21. Similar considerations apply to the
shortest day of the year v/hich falls on December 22.
Dog Days — The days are about the helical rising of the Dog
Star, noted from ancient times as the hottest and most unwhole-
some period of the year. The period of dog days are generally
July 3 to August 15.
HOLIDAYS
Hindu Festival — Diirga Puja — ^A national festival in Bengal.
The celebration signifies the triumph of good over evil and the sub-
jection of animal passions by human beings. It is also symbolical
■of womanhood’s strength and power to_ combat all forms of reaction.
According to Puranas, a demon, Mahisasura was threatening gods
and men. Durga, the embodiment of Divine Power took human
form and bearing weapons in her ten hands slew the demon. Hence
the form in which the goddess is worshipped is that of a warlike
figure ha-ving ten arms and riding astride a lion. The goddess des-
cends from her heavenly home, the Kailash to visit her children on
earth three days every year, accompanied by her two sons, Kartik,
a great warrior, and Ganesh, the God of Prosperity and two
-daughters, Lakshmi, the Goddess of Wealth and Saraswati, the
46
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Goddess of Learning. On tlie fourth day, the immersion ceremony
takes place and the image of the Goddess is consigned to the waters;
The tradition says that on the last day, Ramchandra of Ramayana
offered special prayers to the Goddess and thus gained victory over
Ravana, the Demon King of Lanka (Ceylon).
Sivaratri — ^Festival in honour of the Hindu God Siva, one of
the Hindu Trinity. It takes place in the month of February-March.
Holi — ^Hindu festival in March. It marks the coming of the
spring. The festival in general is held in honour of Krishna. The
day is celebrated in greatest merriment and fun and coloured waters
are thrown over relatives and other people. It is a great festival of
northern India.
Deivali — A festival of lights held in October-November. The
festival is celebrated by means of illuminations and fireworks. In
some States Hindu merchants begin their fresh account books.
The legend says that its celebration began with the coronation of
King Rama.
Ganesh Chaturthi — A gg'eat Hindu festival of the "Western India
generally takes place in September in honour of Hindu God Ganesh
who is represented with four hands and an elephant’s head. This
festival is also known as Ganapaty Day.
Dusserah — It is a great festival of northern India : it usually
takes place in the month of September or October. The festival
takes place in honour of the victory of Goddess (Devi) over the
buffalo-headed demon Mahisasur. The festival takes place for nine
days known as Navaratri. It also commemorates the victory of
Rama over the demon king Ravana. In all important towns of nor-
thern India huge effigies of Ravana is made and burnt on the last
day of the festival in great pomp and pageant.
Sarastvati Puja — Usually takes place in the month of Magb
(January-February) on the fifth day (Panchami) of the new moon.
This day, according to Hindus, heralds the advent of spring. Sara-
swati is the Goddess of Learning.
Christian Festival — All Fool’s day — The first day of April, when,
from centuries throughout the Christendom it has been customary to
place irresponsible tricks on one’s neighbours.
Arbor day— Annual tree planting day is generally observed
throughout U.S.A., in parts of Canada and Great Britain.
Bank Holiday — In Great Britain a secular day when by law
banks are closed, and parties are exempt from presentment or nav-
ment of negotiable paper.
Candlemas dai/— In its ecclesiastical meaning Candlemas is the
o Mary and is observed on February
2. ':ais_ festival IS stactly kept by Roman Catholic Church
C/insfmas— Meaning Christ’s Mass, is applied to the 'festival
commemoraUng the birth of Christ celebrated on December 25. The
exact date of Christ’s birth is unknown. January 6 and December 28
however, were commonly chosen in the 4th century. The general
adoption of December 25, first in the west and a little later^in the
cast, dates from the 5th century. lacer in one
Hasfcr— The season which commemorates the death and resur-
THE CALENDAR
47
rection of Jesus Christ is universally regarded as the chief of Chris-
tian festivals. Christians believe that Jesus was crucified on Good
Friday and rose again from the dead after three days on Easter
Monday.
Good Friday — The Friday before Easter Sunday, celebrated in
commemoration of the crucifixion of Jesus.
Halloween — The name of the popular, boisterous autumn cele-
bration means ‘holy eve’, the occasion being the eve of ‘All Hallows’
or ‘All-Saints’ Day’, November 1. It has the Pagan ori^n.
Lent — A word from the Anglo-Saxon eencten meaning “spring-
time”. It is employed to denote the forty days preceding Easter,
the period observed in the Catholic Church as a fast.
St. Valentine’s day — A festival which falls on February 14. The
orgin of the observance of this day is uncertain. Among the many
interesting folk customs of mediaeval France a ad England, was a
gathering of young people on St. Valentine’s eve. ‘Valentine’ means
sweet-heart.
All Soul’s Day — Day of prayer for souls of the dead.
Moslem Festival — Id-uz-Zuha or Hafcr-id— The festival comme-
morates the ordeal of Ismail and the miraculous way in which at the
last moment Providence came to his rescue.
Hazrat Ibrahim, called Khalilulla, or the friend of God, was put to
a terrible test when he was asked to sacrifice what was dearest to him,
and he decided to offer the life of his beloved! son Ismail. As he
was on the point of applying the knife to Is'mail’s throat, it was
revealed to him that this was meant only to test his faith and that
he would, on opening his eyes, find a ram which he should sacrifice.
It has also a symbolical aspect : the sacrificial animal standing
for the evil in human nature, which must be continually surrendered
at the altar of God. This is celebrated on the 10th day of Zilhija.
Mohurrum — is a period of mourning and is observed annually in
remembrance of the martyrdom of Hassan and Hussein, the grand-
sons of Prophet Mahomed, from whom the race of Syeds, the
Muslim holimen is descended. Mohurrum is the name of the first
month of the Muslim year but the mourning period lasts only for
the first ten days. On the tenth day tabuts or tazyas made of various
materials are exhibited and conveyed in procession through the
streets. The tazyas are in the shape of mausoleums erected over
the remains of Hussain who is buried at Karbala, the battle-field of
Arabia on which he lost his life.
Akhiri-Chahar Sumbha — held on the Wednesday of Safar when
Mahomed recovered a little in his last illness and bathed for the last
time.
Sabi-barat — (night of allotment) — ^held on the 16th Saaban
when it is supposed that human deeds are measured and their needs
allotted.
Ramzan and Id-id-fitr — ^Ramzan is the ninth month of the Mos-
lem lunar year and is holy because the Quoran was revealed in that
month. The fact is ordained in a magnificent passage of the Quoran.
The fast springs from Quoranic instructions for the better commu-
nion with God whom all men must honour and worship and that
48
HINDUSTAN TBAB.-BOOK
those instructions are obeyed by the faithful with the greatest devo-
tion and loyalty. The period begins with the first sight of the new
moon of the month or if the day be overclouded and the moon invi-
sible on the completion of the thirty days from the previous moon.
Each day’s fasting must begin so soon as daybreak permits a white
thread to be discerned from a black thread and it continues till sunset.
Buddhist Festival — Full Moon of Vaisakha — ^is the thrice sacred
.dav in the Buddhist calendar. On this day, imder the spreading
emerald canopy of the Sal tree in the beautiful gardens of Lumbini
-was bom of queen Maya, Prince Siddhartha, the Buddha to be. It was
an another Vaisakha Pumima day, when Tathagata attained “Bodhi”
or enlightenment under a Bodhi Tree at Gaya. On a third Vaisakha
■PmTiima eighty years after the first that Buddha attained Maha-
parinirvan in Kosi.
Ashada Pumima — ^is in commemoration of the first sermon
of the Buddha attained Mahaparinirvan in Kosi.
Fas Pavarana — (End of rainy season lent) is held in October.
NEW INDIAN STATES
Bombay is the largest state in size and second largest in respect
of population.
Uttar Pradesh is the biggest of all States in population and
ranks 4th largest in size.
Madhya Pradesh is the second largest state in area after
Bombay.
State of Kerala in the smallest of Indian States in size.
Bengal is the second smallest state in size,
Kerala is the most thickly-popnlated state in the whole of India.
Uttar Pradesh has the largest block of members in the two
Houses of Parliament, the second place being occupied by Bombay.
Eajasthan is the third largest state in size.
Mysore State brings together Kannada-speaking people previous-
ly distributed in five States.
Merger of the Punjab and Pepsu brings together Hindi and
Punjabi-speaking people of two previous states into two zones of the
new state.
Kerala State brings together vast majority of Malayalam-
speaking people together.
State of Bombay is now bilingual and brings together about 26
million Marhati-speaking people and about 16 million Gujrati-
npeaking people together.
ASTRONOMICAL DATA
SOLAR SYSTEM — ^The solar system is made up of our sun,
-the planets and other heavenly bodies which revolve round the
«un. The bodies in our solar system include the planets, their
satellites or moons, the asteroids and countless swarms of
meteors. These are all held in their places by the pull of the
sun. They travel round the sun receiving and reflecting light
and heat. There are also difltuse bodies called comets, which
revolve in highly elliptical orbits and develop tails when they
are near the sun. The nine large planets are the most massive
bodies in the solar system, next to the sun. These planets have
thirty one satellites including our moon. The nine planets in
order of their distances from the sun are Mercury, Venus, Earth,
Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto. The planets
differ greatly from one another in size. The smallest planet is
Mercury, which is about one sixteenth the size of earth. Venus
is almost as large as the earth but Mars is only one seventh as
large. Saturn is 730 times as large as our planet. Uranus is
sixty-four times as large and Neptune is sixty times as large
as the earth. Jupiter is more than 1,300 times as large as the
earth. Every planet has two motions. It revolves round the sun
■and at the same time it spins on its o'wn axis.
Table of Planets
Mean Dis-
Period of
Mean diam
Axial rotation
tance
sidereal
in miles
(Sidereal)
(.mills, of
revolution
m. from
in years
siin)
Mercury
36-0
0-24
3,000
88 days
Venus
67-0
0-62
7,600
225 days
Earth
92-9
1-00
7,927
23 h. 56 m.
Mars
141-6
1-88
4,200
24 h. 37 m. 23 s.
Jupiter
483-3
11-86
88,700
9 h. 55 m.
Saturn
886-0
29-46
75,100
10 h. 14 m.
Uranus
1782-8
84-02
30,900
Cll h.
Neptune
2793-5
164-8
33,000
C16 h.
Pluto
C3700
24-8
C3,650
SUN — There are countless millions of far distant self-luminous
gaseous bodies called stars and each one is in itself a sun. Our sun
■is at a average distance of 93,000,000 miles from the earth. This
<3istance could be covered in about ten years by a rocket ship 'travel-
ling a thousand miles an hour. It has a diameter of 886,000 miles,
a surface temperature of about 12,000°P. It has a surface area ap-
proximately 12,000 times that of the earth and in volume or bulk it
4
50
HINDUSTAN TnEAR-BOOK
is about 1,306,000 times the size of the earth. By the force of its
gravitational attraction, the Sun keeps the planets in their regular
orbits and pulls them -with it through space at the rate of about 12
miles per second. Dark spots on the surface — Swn Spots — may be
seen from time to time. These are actually immense funnels up
•which s'wirling gases, cooling as they approach the surface, are
rushing from the interior.
•EARTH — ^The earth is about 93,000,000 miles from the Sun.
It travels 19 miles per second as it speeds round the sun (once in
8651 days). It has an area of about 197,000,000 sq. m. Its diameter
at the equator is 7,926.56 miles. Its diameter through the North
about 27 miles. Besides spinning on its axis, the earth moves round
the Sun. The path of the earth round the Sun called its orbit, is
not a circle but an oval or ellipse and the plane in which the Earth
moves is said to be Plane of the Ecliptic. The time taken to com-
plete one revolution round the sun is one year i.e., 3651 days approxi-
mately. The seasons are due to the changes of the earth’s position
in the course of its revolution about the Sun and to the inclination
of its axis.
flIOON — is the only satellite of the earth, round -which it revolves
in 27.32 days at a mean distance of 238, 860 miles. It has no atmos-
plaere, and it shines entirely by reflected light of the Sun. The moon
^s much to do with our tides, its gravitational attraction piling up
■water on the earth’s surface.
OTHER PLANETS — Mercury is the smallest of the major
planets and the one_ nearest the sun. Its diameter is about 3,000 m.,
its period of revolution is 88 days and its distance from the sun varies
from 28,500,000 to 43,350,000 m. Venus is second of the planets in
order of distance from the sun. Its mean distance from the latter is
67,200,000 m., and it revolves in its orbit in 225 days. Its diameter is
about 7,600 m. It is the evening star seen in the western sky. ilf nrs
has a mean distance of 141,650,000 m. from the sun. Its mass is only
about one-tenth that of the earth and its diameter is little more than
half. Its period of rotation is 24 hrs. 37 min. 23 secs. It has two
very small satellites. It is the planet which scientists believe is
most likely to have animal life. Jupiter is the largest of the planets
with 12 known satellites. Its mean distance from the sun is 483
million miles and its time of revolution is 11.86 years. Its diameter
is 11 times that of the earth. It rotates on its axis in a less than 10
hours. Saturn s mean distance from the sum is about 886,000,000 m.,
and it has a unique set of planetoid rings and at least 12 satellites.
Vramis was discovered by Herschal in 1781. Its diameter is 30,000 m.
and it revolves once round the sum from which it is 1,782,800,000 m,
distant, in 84.02 years. It has four main satellites. Neptune has a
diameter of 31,000 m. The distance from the sun is 2,793i million m.
Neptune_has one satellite and the time taken for one revolution round
the sun is 164.8 years, Pluto is the outermost of the known planets.
Its distance from the sun is about 3,700 million miles with a 248-j'ear
revolution period.
ASTEHOIDS — are also called minor planets. They are of small
bodies which revolve round the sun in orbits Ijdng between those of
ASTRONOMICAL DATA
51
Mars and Jupiter. Known asteroids now number over 1,500. New ones
are constantly being discovered. The largest is Ceres, 485 miles in
diameter. Some of these celestial bodies are perhaps nothing more
than great masses of rock flying round the sun. The largest aste-
roids are : Ceres, 485 miles in diameter, Pallas 280, Jimo 160 and
Vesta 241 (miles).
COMETS — ^A heavenly body of a luminous and nebulous appea-
rance that moves round the sun in an orbit that is normally elongated
ellipse. A comet consists of three parts : the nucleus or head, which
contains an enormous number of small bodies, some like dust
particles and others probably many yards in diameter ; the coma
which surrounds the nucleus is of a gaseous nature ; and the
tail which consists of small dust-like particles carried away from the
nucleus by the gases in the coma and then repelled by sunlight. The
tail sometimes looks formidable and it may be many millions of miles
in length, but it is quite harmless and sometimes the earth has passed
through the tail of a comet without ill effect. About 1,000 comets
are known. A few comets travel in hyperbolic orbits, never return-
ing, but most comets return over a period of years. The most famous
is Halley’s Comet which can be seen every seventy years.
JIETEORS — Meteors are pieces of matter which fall to earth
out of space. They plunge into earth’s atmosphere at great speed
and become incandescent from the resultant friction, so that they are
seen in the sky as fireballs or “shooting stars’’. The majority of
meteors are burned up long before they strike the earth’s surface
and those which reach the ground are known as meteorites. Millions
of them enter our atmosphere every-twenty four hours and probably
not more than one or two a day survive to strike the ground as
meteorites. Hence meteors which reach the earth are called mete-
orites. The largest meteorite ever found is located near Grootfontein,
South-West Africa which weighs between 60 to 70 tons. The second
largest meteorite (weight 36J tons) was found at Cape York,
Greenland.
CONSTELLATIONS — Group of fixed stars named after a my-
thological person, animal, etc. It must have been earliest observers,
several thousand years B.C. who recorded that the ‘fixed’ stars are
not scattered uniformly over the sky but appear to be grouped into
figures, now named constellations. This confines us to stars visible
to the naked eye, and also those of Milky Way. The constellations
covering the whole celestial sphere are divided into three groups ac-
cording to the regions in which they are seen — the Northern, the
Southern and the Zodiacal.
SATELLITES — The secondary bodies which revolve around the
planets, as the planets revolve around the sun, are called satellites.
With the exception of Mercury and Venus, all of the planets are ac-
companied by one or more satellites. Earth has one satellite, moon ;
Mars has two ; Jupiter twelve ; Saturn nine ; Uranus five ; and
Neptune two.
STARS — are luminous heavenly bodies, so far distant from the
solar system that the light from the nearest star travelling at the
speed of 186,000 miles per second, takes four years to reach the
52
HmOUSTAN TEAS-BOOK
eaxfh. Unlike the planets, the stars shine hy their orni iignt. Stars
are suns. Some of the stars are blighter and some of them are
fainter than onr o'kti Snn. The total number of stars is probably in
the neighbourhood of thjee to four billion ; a person rrith good eye-
sight can see about 3,000 stars at any one time on a clear nigbt. The
stars ‘twinkle’ as we gaze at them. This twinkling is caused hy
refraction through the earth’s atmosphere.
POLAR AURORAS — The Aurora Borealis (northern Bghts) and
Aurora Austraiis (sonthem lights) are luminous atmospheric pheno-
mena which occur in the Arctic and Antarctic regions respectively.
They are patches of light, quivering beams or immense
‘curtains’ with swaying folds appearing in the night sky. They may
be white, red, yellow, green, violet. It has been definitely established
that sun-spots* are the direct cause of these polar auroras. Ssm-
spots are magnetic storms of vast dimensions on the surface of the
Sun and they shoot out electrified particles into space. Those that
come toward* the earth are dra-sni toward the earth’s magnetic poles
and consequently these magnetic poles are the radiating centres of
those electromagnetic waves in the sky that we commonly call
Northern Lights or Southern Lights, depending npon whether we see
them in the nothem or southern hemisphere.
hlILKY WAT — Milky TFay is a hazy, somewhat irregular band
of light abont 20” wide which completely encircles the heavens ana
consists of dense clouds of stars. It is seen on clear, moonless summer
evenings stretching entirely across the northern slqr.
AT3IOSPHERE — The atmosphere is composed of air which sur-
rounds or envelopes the whole ^rth. It is sometimes likened to a
great sea of gases, at the bottom of which we live. This air which
surrounds the globe afi'ects the light that comes to us from heavenlv
bodies. It refracts (bends or changes the direction) lieht ravs that
enter it. Due to this refraction, we see the Sun and the Aloon* before
they rise and after they set. The ‘twjnldicg’ of the stare is caused
fay convection currents in the air that have rauidlv changino- -refrac-
tive effect on the light from the stars. Our twilight is produced bv
the diffusion in the atmosphere of light from the Sun when it is
below the horizon. Chemically the atmosphere is composed of
m^gen, oorygen and ertremely minor amounts of argon, neon,
helium, hyorogen and carbon dioside.
ANTHROPOLOGICAL INFORMATION
RACES OF aiANKESTD
RACES OF SIANKIND — No two human beings are exactly alike,
but all human beings are alike in many respects. The cells that make
up the body are same for all people. A biologist can tell certain cells
of a human being from those of any other animal, but he cannot tell
the cells of an Englishman or a German from those of a Chinese, a
Negro or an American Indian. In the same way a biologist can tell
human blood from the blood of lower animals, but all types of
human blood are found among all stocks and races of man. For this
reason, anthropologists say that there is only one race of people —
human race. All human beings belong to one organic species called
Homo Sapiens.
RACE “A SOCIAL MYTH”— The United Nations Educational,
Social and Cultural Organization in a statement on 8th July, 1950 set
forth the following main points from the conclusions of international
panel of world’s biologists, geneticists, sociologists, anthropologists
etc. —
(1) Racial discrimination has no scientific foundation in biolo-
pcal fact. There is no proof that the groups of mankind differ in
intelligence, temperament, or other innate mental characteristics,
(2) The range of mental capacities in all races is much the
same.
(3) Extensive study yields no evidence that race mixture pro-
duces biologically bad results. The social results of race mixtures
arc to be traced to social factors. There is no biological justifica-
tion for prohibiting inter-marriage between persons of different
ethnic groups.
(4) Race is less a biological fact than a social myth. As a
myth it has in recent years taken a heavy toll in human lives and
suffering and still keeps millions of persons from normal develop-
ment, and civilization from the full use of the co-operation of pro-
ductive minds.
(5) Scientifically, no large modem national or religious
^oup is a race. Nor are people who speak a single language, or live
in a single geographical area, or share in a single cultural commu-
nity necessarily a race.
(6) Tests have shown essential similarity in mental characters
among all human racial groups. Given similar degrees of cultural
opportunity to realize their potentialities, the average achievement of
the members of each ethnic grroup is about the same.
(7) All human beings possess educability and adaptability, the
traits which more than all others have permitted the development of
men’s mental capacities.
But as we view all mankind, we can see that people differ in
the colour of their skin, in the colour and form of their hair, in eye
colour, and in other external physical characteristics. On the basis of
54
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
these differences, most anthropologists divide the manMnd into three
or lour major stocks. Each of these stocks is divided into a mimher
of smaller groups or races. , cr
AIEANING of race — ^T here is no single trait which marks on
one race or stocks from another. The overlapping of races and
stocks with respect to any single trait is so great that a whole com-
hination of traits is necessary to identify a race or stock. The fw-
lowing is the commonly-accepted definition of race — A race is made
up of persons who have a fairly definite combination of distinguish-
ing physical traits which is handed on from parents to children.
PURE RACE — There is hio pure’ races today. Some anthro-
poligists believe that pigmies of Equatorial Africa are relatively
pure as to race. For countless generations mankind has been cross-
ing and recrossing, so far as races are concerned. Any given race
in Europe has some genes or hereditary units, of almost all the other
races of Europe.
RACE SUPERIORITY — Science does not support the claim that
some races are biologically superior or inferior to others. Civilization
of any race may be advanced or retarded and the people within them
may have greater or smaller opportunities for contact and for personal
development. People, who live in an advanced civilization regardless
of race or stock, develop much more rapidly than people who live in
a retarded civilization. But this has nothing to do with abilities or
aptitudes.
CLASSIFICATION OF 3IANKIND — The various ways of classi-
fying mankind are as follows —
(1) Hair classification — Some ethnologists divide mankind into
three kinds — Woolg hair, icavy hair, straight hair.
(2) Colour classification — Some ethnologists divide mankind
like this — Whites, Yellow-Broron and Blacks.
(3) Stock classification — The human family has been divided
into three or possibly four great aggregates of races usually call-
ed stocks : — Caucasian, Mongo lian , Negroid and Australoid. First
three are often referred to as “White’, bellow’ and ‘Black’. This is
not really correct ; peoples of North-Central India are cancasoids,
yet their skin colour is brown to dark brown. Variability also may
he seen in stature ; the tallest people in the world are found in
Denmark and Scottish Highlands, in East Africa and in southern-
most Souft America — ^respectively Caucasoid, Negroid and Mongoloii
The Caucasian or Indo-Exiropean Race CWhite) comprises the
Persians, Jews, -Arabians, Hindus, Afghans, and the people of Nor-
t^im Africa ; also the descendants of Europeans in America, South
.Mnca, Australia, peoples of Europe, the adjacent shores of North
Africa, nnd of Asia Alinor, and India. The following races also
belong to Caucasian stock — Nordic or northwest European, Alpine
or Central European, Mediterranean or south-west European, Baltic
or north-east ^European, Dinaric or south-east European, Arnicnoid
m western Asia Minor. These races are not, of course absolutely
limited to those geographical areas.
Mongolian Race (Yellow) is basically the peoples of Asia,
but are also in the western hemisphere as the American Indians and
ANTHROPOLOGICAL INFORMATION
65
are represented in Malaysia and in Oceania. The Mongoloids are
Tisually divided into the following races ; Senic of China and Japan,
Palearctic of Siberia, Turkic and Tungic or Mongolia of Central Asia
and Malayan of Malaysia. In the Western Hemisphere, they are
found as Eskimos and the Indians of the Americas. In Polynesia
i.e., in Samoa Tonga, Hawaii, the Mongoloid stock is a basic element
with Caucasoid and some Negroid admixture.
The Negroids are the peoples of Africa and Oceania termed
respectively the African Negroids and the Oceanic Negroids. The
following are African Negroid races — True negro in S. Africa,
Sudanie in Central Africa, Nilotic in East Africa, Hamitic in North-
east and North Africa, Banttt in S. Africa, Bashman-Hottentot in
Kalahari desert of S. Africa. The Oceanic Negroids are commonly
called Melanesion or Papuan, and are chiefly found in Borneo, New
Caledonia, Solomons Hebrides and Fiji.
Australoids are found in Australia as Australian aboriginals and
in Japan as the Ainu. They may possibly be an element in Mela-
nesia and in Ceylon and South India i.e., Toda, the Vedda and other
DISTRIBUTION OF BASIC STOCK— In percentages, world’s
population is about 43 per cent. Mongoloid, 33 per cent Caucasoid and
24 per cent Negroid.
STAGES OF CIVILISATION OF MAN
The terms employed refer to periods, not of time but of culture
and are of local application only — ^it is not universal in all parts of
the world.
Stone Age — Age of human development in which primitive man
was using stone implements and weapons. The Stone Age preceded
the ages of bronze and iron. It is usually divided into four periods
— (1) Aolithic or dawn of the stone age which lasted 6,000,000 years
B.C.; (2) Paleolithic or old stone age lasting perhaps 400,000 to
100.000 B.C. in which weapons and sharp stone tools were made from
hard stone (flint) by chipping ; (3) Mesolithic, at traditional period
intermediate between the old and new stone ages, lasting perhaps
until 10,000 B.C. when arrow and spear-heads were made and (4) the
Neolithic or New stone age in which tools were perfected by grind-
ing and polishing the stone. The new stone age lasted in Europe
for some 5,000 years. In different parts of the world, the stone age
existed at different times. Fire was probably discovered some 60,000
years before Christ.
Bronze Age — ^The period when early man used bronze for his
tools and weapons, this superseding the use of stone. Its date differs
in various areas. In the East it began probably about 6,000 B.C.
and in the West perhaps 2,000 B.C. and continued until about
1.000 B.C.
Iron Age — ^The cultural phase of human civilisation marked by
the use of iron specially for edged tools and weapons. In Europe and
'West Asia it usually followed the copper-using or bronze-using phase
.or age; in Africa it directly succeeded the stone-age. In Europe,
56
HINDUSTAN- YEAR-BOOK
iron working became general in the Mediterranean region abont
1,000 B.C., subsequently two pre-Christian periods occurred, each of
about 500 years.
PRE-HISTORIC RACES
Pithecanthropos erectus (erect ape-man or Java man) — ^This is
generally believed to be the earliest manlike animal. Held to be a
creature of pleistocene time about mid-way between the orang-utan
and man (1891-1892).
Sinaiithropos pektnensis (Peking man) — Of higher development
than Java man, but of approximately same period. Fosilized re-
mains of 10 individuals were found in a cave about 40 miles from
Pekin between 1926 and 1930. The brain capacity is estimated to be
about one-fourth larger than that of Java man.
Aiistralopitheciis Africamis (erect man-ape) — A skuR was found
in Cape Colony in 1925. _
Homo Heidelberg crisis (Heidelberg man) — ^Primitive man of ple-
istocene period discovered in Heidelberg, Germany (1907). The jaw
which are remarkably well-preserved, are unmistakably of human
type.
Neanderthal Man — Oldest kno-wn dolichocephalic (long-headed)
race in Europe, living about 50,000 years before Christian era.
Human remains were first discovered in 1857 near Dusseldorf,
Germany, in Neanderthal, after which this type of human beings
has been named.
«,oo"To.Tw9S?r“ “
Note— Figures in parenthesis denote years in which discoveries
were made.
GEOGRAPHICAL SNFORHATION
AREA OF THE CONTINENTS
Europe
Africa
Asia
Sq. miles Sq. miles
3,773,958 Antarctica . . 6,362,625
11,529,480 South America . . 6,825,876
16,494,217 North America . . 9,358,976
Australia . . 2,974,581
WORLD DIMENSIONS
Diameter of either
Pole
Diameter at equator
Circ. of equator
Miles
Distance from
7,900-00 Sun
7,926-68 Superficial area
24,901-08 Water area
Land area
Sq. miles
the
. . 93,000,000
.. 196,836,000
.. 141,050,000
. . 69,786,000
LONGEST RIVERS
Mississippi-Missouri
Amazon
Nile
Yangtse
Yenisei
Congo
Miles long
. . 4,500 Lena
. . 4,000 Amur
. . 3,850 Yellow River
. . 3,400 Mekong
. . 3,300 Niger
. . 3,000
OCEANS AND SEAS
Miles long
. . 2,648
. . 2,621
. . 2,610
. . 2,610
. . 2,600
Ocens
Pacific
Atlantic
Indian
Arctic
Area (sq. m.)
. . 67,700,000
. . 34,800,000
. . 28,600,000
5,541,600
Greatest depths (ft.)
35,640 (Marianas Trencli")
30,246 (Puerto Rico)
22,968
16,500
Seas
Malayan Sea
Caribbean
Mediterranean
Area (sq. m.)
. 3,139,000
. 1,667,000
. 1,145,000
(Gi-eatest depths (ft.)
21,342
23,748
18,160
HIGHEST MOUNTAIN PEAKS
Range
Everest Himalayas
Godwin-Austen (Ir) Do.
Kanchanjanga Do.
Lhotse Do.
Makalu Do.
Nanda Devi Do.
Nanga Parvat Do,
Kamet Do.
height Range height
in ft. in ft.
29,028 Aconcagua Andes 22,836
28,250 Illampu Do 21,500
28,146 Chlmborozo Do. 20,498
27,890 McKinley Alaska 20,300
27.790 Mount Logan Rockies 19.850
26.646 Cotopaxi Andes 19,344
26,629 Kilimanjaro Tanganaika 19,340
25,477 Demevand Iran 18,600-
Elburz Caucasus 18,481
58
HINDUSTAN TEAK-BOOS;
HIGHEST & LOWEST ELEVATIONS OF THE WORLD
Highest {jt.) I/oicest
World & -4sfa— Mt. Everest . - 29,028 Jordan Talley, Dead Sea
(Asia) — 1,290 ft. beIo~
mean sea level
Africa— 'm. EHimanjaro 19,340 Qattara Depression
‘ (Egypt) 440 ft. below
sea level
H. America— yit. McKinley - - 20,300 Death Talley, Califor-
nia 275 ft. below sea
level
S. America — Mt. Aconcagna .. 22.8-35 Sea level
Antarctica — Mt. Markham - - 15,100 Sea level
Europe — ^Mt. Elburz (Cancasns) 18,481 Caspian Sea (U.S.S.R-)
92 ft. below sea level
Australia — ^Mt. Koscinsco - • 7,305 Lake Eyre, 40 ft. below
sea level
LAKES
Area Area
Sg. Miles Sq. Miles
Caspian Asia-Europe . 170,000 Great Bear Lake
Superior (N. America) 31.820 (N. America) . . 12,000
Tictoria Nyanza (.Africa) 26500 Great Slave (N. America) 11,170
Aral (Asia) . . 24400 Nayasa (.Africa) . . 11.000
Huron (N. .America) . . 23,010 Erie (North .America) 9.940
Michigan (N. .America) 22.400 Winnipeg (North America) 9.39S
Tanganyika (.Africa) 12.700 Ontario (North .America) 7,540
Baikal (Siberia) . . 12,150 Ladoga (Europe) . . 7,100
Balkhash (Asia) . . 6,670
VOLC.ANOE5
Active feet Dormant feet
Cutonasi (Ecuador) . . 19,550 Llullaillaco (Chile) . . 20544
3It. Wrangel (U.SA.) 14.000 Demavend (Iran) .. 18,600
Manna Loa (Hawaii) . . 13,675 Semerou (Java) . . 12.050
Erebus (.Antarctic) ., 13,000 Halcakala (Hawaii) .. 10,032
Nyiragongo (Belgian Guntur (-Java) .. 7,300
Congo) . , 11,560 Pelee (W. Indies) . . 4,430
Biamna (.Aleutian Is.) . , 11.000 Krakatoa (Sunda Strait) 2,600
Etna (Cicily) . , 10.741 Two-Shima (Japan) . . 2,480
Chilian ((^ile) . - 10,500 Extinct feet
Nyamuragira (Belgian .Aconcagua (Chile) . . 22,976
Congo) . . 10,150 Chimborazo (Equador) 20,500
Paricutin (Merico) . . 9,000 Kilimanjaro (Tanga-
.Asama (Japan) . . 8500 nyika) . . 19.340
Hecla (Iceland) .. 5,100 .Antisana (Equador) .. 18.850
Kilauca (Hawaii) . . 4,090 Elburz (Caucasus) . . 18.526
Vesuvius (Italy) . . 3,700 Popocatapetl (Jlerico) 17,750
Stromboli (Lipari Is.) . - 3,000 Orizaba (Mexico) . . 17.400
Fujiyama (Japan) . . 12,395
GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION
59
TEN LARGEST ISLANDS
feet Baffin (Canada) . . 197,754
Greenland (Denmark) 840,000 Sumatra (Indonesia) . . 167,620
New Guinea (Nether- Honshu . . 89,009
lands, Australia) . . 316,861 Great Britain
Borneo (Indonesia, (Mainland) . . 84,186
Gr, Br.) . . 290,012 Victoria (Canada) . . 80,340
Madagascar (France) 228,682 Ellesmere (Canada) . . 77,392
DESERTS
Gobi (Mongolia, Asia)
Sahara (North Africa)
Kalahari (South Africa)
Libyan (East Sahara)
Kizil Kum (Central Turkistan)
Kara Kum (South-west Turkistan)
Atacama (North Chile)
Approx, size.
300.000 sq. m.
3,500.000 sq. m.
120.000 sq. m.
500.000 sq. m.
70,000 sq. m.
110.000 sq. m.
400 m. long
Talka Makan (South Sinkiang, China) . . 700 m. long
Great Arabian (most of Arabia) .. . . 1,500 m. long
Thar (N. W. India) . . About 300 m. by 380 ra.
Great Australian (Western portion of Australia) About half the
continent
Nubian (East Africa) .. . . 100,000 sq. m.
Colorado (S. E. California) .. . . 200 m. long
Mohave (S. E. California) . . . . 15,000 sq. m.
GEOGRAPHICAL SURNAMES
Island of pearls — Bahrein (Per-
sian Gulf).
World’s lonliest island — Tristan
De Cunha (Mid-Atlantic).
Ttoof of the World — Tibet.
Holy Land — Palestine.
Island of Cloves — Zanzibar.
Land of White Elephant — Siam.
Empire City — New York.
Pillars of Hcrcides — Strait of
Gibraltar.
Kev of the Mediterranean —
Gibraltar.
Rose-pink City — Jainur.
Whiteman’s grave — Guinea coast
of Africa.
Sugar bowl of the world — Cuba.
Windy City — Chicago.
Venice of the North — Stockholm.
Forbidden City — ^Lhasa.
Land of Cakes — Scotland.
China’s Sorrow — ^Hoang Ho.
Gate of tears — Strait of Bab-el-
Mandeb.
Pearl of the Antilles — Cuba.
The Corridor — A strip of land in
Poland separating Germany
from East Prussia.
Granite City — Aberdeen.
Eternal City — Rome.
Gift of the Nile — Egypt.
Land of the Midnight Sun —
Norway.
Land of Morning Calm — ^Korea.
Hermit Kingdom — Korea.
Playground of Europe — Switzer-
land.
City of Seven Hills — Rome.
Land of Firing Sun—^apan.
Dark Continent — Africa.
Emerald Isle — ^Ireland.
Land of Maple — Canada.
60
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Land of Five Rivers— The Punjab. Bengal’s sorroju— Damodar.
Gateway of India — Bombay. Never Never land — ^\'ast prairies
City of Palaces — Calcutta. of northern Australia.
Land of Golden Fleece — ^Aus- Queen of the Adnatic — ^Venice.
tralia. The Down Under — .Australia.
City of Sky-Scrapers — Nem York. Herring Pond — ^.Atlantic Ocean.
Cockpit of'Ev.rope — The Balkans. Great White Tfay — Broadrray
Land of Thousand Lakes — (Nenr Y'ork).
Finland. City of Dreaming Spires —
City of Magnificent Distances — Oxford.
Washin^on D.C. Garden of England — Kent.
LONGEST TUNNELS
Miles _ IUjics-
East Finchley-3Iorden . . 175 Einiutaka (N. Z.) . . 55
Simplon (Switzerland-Italy) 125 Ricken, Switzerland . . 55 .
.Appennine, Italy . . 115 Grenchenberg Do . . 55
St. Gothard, Switzerland 95 Tauren. Austria . . 55
Loetschbeg, Switzerland 9 Otira, A". Z. . . 5
Mont Cenis, Italy . . 85 Ronco, Italy . . 5
Cascade, U.S.A. . . 72 Hauenstein, Switzerland . . 5
Arlberg, Austria . . 65 Colie di Tenda, Italy . . 5
Moffat, U.S-A 6 Connaught, Canada .. 5
Shimzu, Japan . . 6
3I0UNT.4IN PASSES
ft. high ft. high
.Alpine (Colorado, U.S..A,) 13,550 St. Bernard (Siriss Alps) 8.100
Bolan (Baluchistan) 5,880 St. Gotthard (Sv.-iss Alps) 6.936
Brenner (Austrian Alps) 4,588 Shiph.a (Bulgaria) .. 4.300
Khybar (.Afghanistan) 3,373 Simplon (Swiss .Alps) .. 6,595
F.AMOUS CAYES AND CAIYIRNS
Mamoth Cave (Kentucky. U.S.) 4 m. long 125 ft, high.
Caverns of .Adelsburg (Trieste),
Carlsbad Caverns (S. W. New Mexico). ct
Cheddar Cave (Somerset).
Fingal’s Cave (Scotland).
Blue Grotto (Island of Capri, Italy).
SHIP (
Length
in vulcs
White Sea (u.e.s.t.) . . 140
Gotta (Sweden) . . 115
Suez (Egypt) . . 100
Volga-Moscow (rus.s.r.) 80
Kiel (Germany) . . 61
Ahlga-Don (u.s.s.t.) . . 60
Panama (Panama Canal) 50
lANALS
Length
in. miles
Elbe-Txave (Germany) . . 41
Manchester (England) . . 355
Welland (Canada) .. 275
Princess Juliana (Holland) 20*
.Amsterdam . . 16?
Corinth . . . , 4
Sanlte Ste. Marie (U.S. —
GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION
61
GEOGRAPHICAL RECORD-BREAKERS
Highest Mountain System
Longest Mountain System
Highest Plateau,
Longest River
Largest River (in_ volume)
Largest River Basin
Largest Salt Water Lake ..
Largest body of Fresh Water
Largest group of Islands . .
Largest Artificial Lake
Largest north to south
stretch of land
Largest inland sea
Largest ship canal
Deepest Ocean
Highest Auto Road . .
Highest Capital City
Largest Island ..
Densest population
Hottest Region
Coldest Regions
Largest Continent
Largest Poninsida
Highest Country
Biggest Ocean
Most northerly Town
Largest Desert
Largest City
Highest Peak
Densely Populated Country
Rainiest Place
Largest Volcano
Highest Active Volcano
Smallest Continent
Deepest Lake
Highest Lake
Saltiest Sea
Smallest Independent State
Largest Unbroken Political
Unit
Largest Delta
Himalayas.
Andes.
Tibet.
Mississippi-W[issouri, 4,500 miles long.
Amazon.
Basin of Amazon, 2,720,800 sq. miles.
Caspian Sea.
Superior.
Malaya Archipelago.
Lake Mead at Boulder Dam (U.S.A.).
America : N. and S. extend from
Arctic to the Antarctic Ocean.
McditeiTanean Sea.
White Sea Canal, 140 miles long.
Pacific Ocean.
Mount Evans Highway (Colorado,
U.S.A.).
La Paz (Bolivia).
Greenland, 840,000 sq. miles.
Monaco (33,898 per sq. mile).
North-west Sahara, Azizia (Tripolita-
nia), Death Valley (California), and
Thar Desert of North-west India.
Verkoyansk in North-East Siberia
where temperature is 94° below zero.
Asia.
India.
Tibet.
Pacific Ocean.
Hemmerfest, Norway, 275 miles north
of Arctic circles.
Sahara (Africa).
London (Population, 8,346,000).
Mt. Everest (29,028 ft.).
China.
Cherrapunji (Assam),
Mauna Loa (crater 3.7 sq. m.). Largest
volcanic mt. in cubic content.
Kotopaxi (Equador), 19,560 ft.
Australia.
Lake Baikal (Siberia).
Lake -Titicaca (Bolivia, 12,000 ft.
above sea).
Dead Sea.
Vatican City (109 acres).
U.S.S.R.
Sundarban delta (8,000 sq. miles).
62
BINDTJSTAN yeak-book
Longest ThorougTifare
Highest City
Largest coral fomwJtion . .
Lowest body of water
Deepest place in the ocean
Broadway, New* Torli.
Phari, Tibet, altitude 14,300 ft.
Great Barrier Keef, (Australia).
Dead Sea.
Off the Island of Mindanao, Philip-
pines sounding of 35,410 ft, reachA
Tt'ORLD PSTREMES OP CLIMATE
Coldest Place — ^^erkoyansk (Si- Highest mean annual tempera-
heria) — 94°F (126° below free- tare — S6°F at Massawa, Eri-
zing point) on Jan. 3, 1885. trea, Africa.
Hottest Place — Azizia (Libya) — Lowest mean annual tempera-
136°P (Sept. 13, 1922) and ture — 14 °F at FrambeLm, An-
Death Valley (California) — tarctica.
134 °P. (July 10, 1913). Wettest Place — 366 inches in
Minimum recorded Rainfall — ^.04 one month at Cherrapunji.
inch at Iquique, Chile — average Assam, July, 1E61. Average
yearly fall during 40 years. annual rainfall is 424 and 499
inches.
WATERF.ALLS
{The following arc notable chiefly for height)
Height ft. Height ft.
Angel (Venezuela) .. 3212 Garsoppa (India) .. 829
Yosemite (U-S-A) .. 2425 Kaieteur (B. Guiana) .. 741
Southerland (N.Z.) -. 1904 Maletsunyane (Basutoland) 6S2
Ribbon (U.S.A.) , . 1612 Aughrabies (S. Africa) 450-480
Gavarnie (France) - . 1385 Tequendama (Colombia) 475
Staubbach (S^vitzerland) 9S0 Glomach (Scotland) .. 370
Vettitfos (Norway) ,. 900 Grand Falls (Labrador) 316
Multnomach (U.SA.) . . 850
{The following combine considerable height with •colume)
Ht, in ft. Width in Mac:, flood
yds. flow in at.
^t. per sec.
Guaira (Brazil-Paragaay) .. 90-130 5.240 over 1,500,000
Niagara (Canada-U.SA.) .. 158-1 75' 1.316 over 290,000
Paulo -AJTonso (Brazil) .. 275 ' 19 over 500.000
Iguassu (Brazil-Argentina) .. 237' 300 over 450.000
Victoria (N.-S, Rhodesia) .. 236-354’ 1,530 250,000
Khon Cataracts (Indo-Cbina) 50-70 14,000 over 1,750!000
Cauvery (Siva Sundaram, India) 300’ 918 over 600,000
Garsoppa (India) .. 829 17,800 120,000
Aughrabies (S. Africa) .. 450-480 20 500,000
GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION
6S
POLAR RECORDS
Arctic
Year
Explorer
No.
Latitude
1854 ..
E. K. Kane (U.S.)
78°
45'
1871 ..
Capt. Hall (U.S.A.)
82°
11'
1875 ..
Capt. Nares (G.B.)
83°
20'
1882 ,.
Lieut. Greely (U.S.A.) ..
83°
24'
1892 ..
Lieut. Peary (U.S.A.)
83°
27'
1895 ..
Fridtjof Nansen (Norway)
Duke d’ Abruzzi (Italy)
86°
14'
1900 ..
86°
34'
1902 ..
Lieut. Peary (U.S.A.)
84°
17'
1904 ..
Zeigler Polar Expedition (U.SA.)
82°
4'
1906 ..
Commander Peary (U.S.A.)
87°
6'
1909 ..
Commander Peary (U.S.A.)
90°
(Pole)
, ,
1926 ..
Commander Byrd (U.S.A.)*
90°
(Pole)
1926 ..
Amundsen -Ellswortb-N obile'j-
90°
(Pole)
1928 ..
Gen. U. Nobile f (Italy)
90°
(Pole)
1937 ..
Pavel Golvin, (Soviet Russia)^
90°
(Pole)
1937 ..
Otto J. Schmidt and four others*
(Soviet Russia)
90°
(Pole)
1952 ..
Lt. Col. Benedict (U.S.A.F.)
• •
90°
(Pole)
•-
Antarctic
Year
Explorer
No.
Latitude
1774 ..
Capt. Cook (G.B.)
.. 71°
10'
1823 ..
Capt. Weddell (G.B.) ..
.. 74°
15'
1842 ..
Capt. Rose (G.B.)
.. 78°
10'
1900 ..
Borchgrevink (G.B.)
.. 78°
50'
1902 ..
Capt. Robert F. Scott ( G B.)
.. 82°
17'
1909 ..
Lieut. Shackletoii (G.B.)
.. 88°
23'
1911 ..
Roald Amundsen (Norway)
.. 90°
(Pole)
• •
1912 ..
Capt. Robert F. Scott (G.B.)
.. 90°
(Pole)
1935 ..
L. Ellsworth* (U.SA.)
.. 76°-
79°
68'
1947 ..
Adml. Richard Byrd* (U.S.A.)
.. 90°
(Pole)
FIRST ASCENTS OF MOUNTAINS
Mont. Blanc (France-Italy), Chimhorazo (Ecuador), E.
M. G. Paccard & J, Balmat, 1786. ‘WTiyuiper, 1880.
Jungfrau (Switzerland), J. R. Mt. Cook (New Zealand), W. S.
& H. Meyer, 1811. Green, 1882.
Matterhorn (Switzerland), E. Kilimanjaro (Tangansdka),
"WTiymper, 1865. Meyer, 1887.
Elbrus (Caucasus), D. W. Aconcagua (Chile- Argentine),
Freshfield, A. W. Moore, & C. C. M. Zurbriggen, 1897.
Tucker, 1868.
*By airplane.
fBy airship.
^4
nmOUSTAN TEAS-BOOK
First Ascents of Mountains — {Condd.).
Ut, St. Elias (Alaska), Duke
-of Abruzzi, 1897.
3ft. Kenya (Kenya), H. J-
Macxnder, 1899.
Ruv:eit:ori (Central Africa),
Duke of Abruzzi, 1906.
ML McKinley (Alaska), Par-
ker-Brovnie Expdt.
ML Logan (Alaska), A. H.
McCarthy, 1925. _
Illampu (Bolivia), German-
Anstrian Expedition.
Kr iGodroin Ajssten, Karako-
ram), Italian Expedition, July 31,
1954.
Everest (Nepal), British Ex-
pedition, 1953.
Kanchenjunga (Nepal), Bri-
tish Exp. led by Charles Evans.
Alay 25, 1955.
ML Cho-Oyun (Nepalese Hi-
malayas), by Aastnan Expedi-
tion Oct. 19, 1954.
Manga Parvat by Austrian-
German Exp. led by Peter Schen-
brenner, July 4, 1953.
3If. Annap'uma by Maurice
Herzog (French), June 3,’ 1950.
ML Mwdtv.m (Jammu £;
Kashmir) by French Exn. Aue.
28, 1953.
Lhotsc by Svriss Exnidition,
May, 1956.
Mahalu by French Expedition,
May, 1955.
Mansabi by Japanese Eraedi-
tion. May, 1956.
FA3IODS STRUCTURES OF THE MORLD
Cheops Pyramid of Egypt —
Near Gizeh, erected by the
Pharaoh Cheops descended from
the fourtla dsmasty in B. C. in
2700-2675. Cheops had the Py-
ramid bniit to serve him as a
tomb. It is 481 ft. height, its
base being 750 ft, square.
Great Sphinx of Egypt— A
st.one image of a crouching lion
vrith a ^ human head, at Gizeh in
norihern Egypt 'and carved about
3500 B.C. The total height of
Sphinx is about 66 ft., its body
is* 189 ft. in length.
Alhambra — A group of build-
ings-erected chieSy between 1348
and 1354 by the Moorish King
A1 Ahmar and his successors oa
■a hill above Granada in southern
Spain. It is claimed to be the
■crowning achievement of the
iloors in Spain.
Pantheon — ^At Rome -was built
in 27 B.C, It was used as temple,
laterally Pantheon was intended
--as a temple of “all the Gods”.
Leaning Tower of Pisa — A
round white marble bell-tower
at Pisa, Italy and containing
eight stories enclosed by • colu-
mns. The tower leans about 14
feet out of the perpendicular,
its height being 183 feet on the
north side and 179 feet on the
south side. It was built in 1350.
Parthenon of Athens — cons-
tructed in Acropolis, Temple of
Athena, Goddess of Thought
This most beautiful b-ailding of
the world -was constructed by
Pericles in 447-432 B.C.
Great M’all of China — A vrall
of about 1,500 miles long extend-
ing along the boundary between
nortliern China and "Mongolia.
It was raised in 213 B.C. to serve
as a rampart ' to defend the
coun^ against foreign invasions
'and in 1400 it -was reconstructed
in stones.
Great Buddhist Temple of Java
— A monument of Buddhist ar-
chitecture, known as Boro Bu&or
GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION
65
Famous Structures of the World — iConcld.).
and built of volcanic lava bet-
ween A.D. 750 and 850. It is
one of the architectural wonders
of the world.
Acropolis at Athens — A hill
about 260 feet in height located
in south-eastern Greece. At the
summit are ruins of numerous
temples originally enclosed by
Doric and Ionic columns and
built of marble by Pericles and
Cimon in the 5th century B.C.
The most notable of these struc-
tures include Parthenon which
contained a gold and ivory statue
of Athena.
St. Peter’s at Rome — ^The
largest Cathedral in the world
covering an area of 18,000
square yards is located in
Rome, Italy. It was completed
in 1632. The Cathedral’s Neat-
est length is 636 feet, its height
is 435 feet.
Mayan Temples — ^Buildings
erected by the Mayan Indians, S.
America, who attained a high
civilization before the birth of
Christ. The temples, now in ruins
were built on lofty pyramid-shap-
ed terraces and were frequently
ornamented with columns in the
form of feathered snakes.
Colosseum of Rome — ^The con-
struction of this famous amphi-
theatre was completed in 80 B.C.
Its greatest circle had a dia-
meter of 185 m. and its smallest
156 m. and was 48.5 m. high.
■ It seated 85,000 spectators. It
served for circus performances,
for the fight of the gladiators,
animal fights etc. In this era
the first Christians were thrown
in the Colosseum to the wild
animals.
Potala of Tibet — ^The fortress-
palace of Dalai Lama, the ruler
of Tibet. The structure is over
6
900 feet in length and resem-
bles a fortress with many gilded
roofs and towers at various
levels — the highest being more
than 400 feet from the ground.
Shawe Dagon Pagoda — A gild-
ed bell-shaped structure at Ran-
goon containing eight hairs of
Buddha. Its base is 1,355 feet
in circumference and the top is
encased with gold leaf support-
ing 1,500 little bells of silver and
gold. It is 367 feet high.
Lomonosov University of
Moscow — was opened in 1953.
It is the highest scientific build-
ing in the world. It contains 32
floors and 45,000 rooms. The
Amphitheatre of Geo^aphic
Education is situated in the
centre. There are 112 elevetors
for the service of the students
and one can reach the top floor
in 37 seconds.
Taj Mahal — A domed square
mausoleum of white marble at
Agra in India built during the
period from 1630 to 1649 by Em-
peror Shah Jahan as a burial
place for his wife Mumtaz Ma-
hal. Tajmahal is the perfect
gem of Moslem art.
Colossus of Mysore — A statue
of 57 feet in height representing
Gomateswara, a saint of the
Jain religion. It was carved in
983 A.D. from a solid rock on a
MU top that rises 470 feet above
a plain in Mysore. The image
is 26 feet broad at the shoulders.
Angkor Vat — A structure 796
ft. long and 588 feet wide in a
city in Cambodia, French Indo-
China, comprising a royal city
of 59 sq. miles area and temple
Angkor Vat. Built in 9th cen-
tury by the Khmers, the enclosed
temples, palaces and public
building of stone are completely
HINDUSTAN TEAR BOOK
^6
Famous Structures of the World — {Concld.).
covered -with sculptured scenes
which picture the life of Khmer
civilization now extinct. The
largest of five pagoda rises 250
feet above foundations at the
centre of the temple.
' Kremlin of Moscow — was con-
structed in the city surrounded
by a wall. It contains several
buildings and domes among
which the most famous is the
Tower of Ivan the terrible where
the largest bell in the world is
placed.
Empire State Building—in
New York is the tallest building
of the world, 1,250 ft. high in
102 stories. The building was
completed in 1931.
KNOW YOUR NEW COINS
At present you count money in rupees, annas and pies. For
your convenience the Government of India have decided to introduce
Decimal Coinage from 1st April, 1957.
Under the new coinage system, your rupee shall have 100 Nayd
Paise. There will be seven new coins in use : —
100 Nayc Paise
60 Naye Paise
25 Naye Paise
10 Naye Paise
5 Naye Paise
2 Naye Paise
1 Nayaa Paisa
One rupee.
One half of a rupee.
Quarter of a rupee.
1/lOth of a rupee.
l/20th of a rupee.
l/50th of a rupee.
1/lOOth of a rupee.
Tnipoi-tant Points — The rupee will remain the standard coin with
^ no loss or gain in its value. The change-over from the old to the
new coins will be gradual. For at least three years, both the old
coins and the new coins would be current. During this period pav-
ments can be made or accepted either in new or old coins or in both.
GENERAL INFORMATION
LONGEST RAILWAY STATION PLATFORMS
feet Bournemouth {Eng.) . . 1,734
Storvik (Sweden) . . 2,470 Perth (Scotland) . . 1.714
Sone (India) .. 2,415 York (Eng.) .. 1.704
Kharagpur (India) .. 2,3.30 Cambridge (Eng.) .. 1,629
Bulawayo (Rhodeeia) .. 2,302 Edinburgh (Scotland) .. 1.608
New Lucknow (India) .. 2,250 Aberdeen (Scotland) .. 1,596
Bezwada (India) .. 2,210 Trichinopoly (India) . .. 1,546
Manchester Victoria Ex- Ranaghat (India) .. 1,522
change (L.M.S.) .. 2.194 Crewe (Eng.) .. 1,509
Jhansi (India) .. 2,025 Dakor (India) .. 1,470
Kotri (N.W.R., Pakistan) 1,896 Victoria (Eng.) .. 1,430
Mandalay (Burma Rail- New Castle (Eng.) 1,365
ways) . . 1,788 Bristol (Eng.) . . 1,300
LONGEST BRIDGES
(With length in feel of waterways)
Lower Zambesi (Africa) 11,322 Hardinge (Pakistan) .. 5,384
Storsstromsbroen Victoria .Jubilee (Canada) 6,325
(Denmark) .. 10,499 Moerdijk (Uelherlands) 4.698
Tay Bridee (Scotland) 10.289 S.vdney Harbour (Anst.) 4.124
Sone Bridge (India) .. 9.839 .Jacques Carlior (Canada) 3.890
Godavari (India) .. 8.881 Queensborouch (U.S.A.) 3.720
Forth Bridge (Scotland) 8.291 Ilrooklyn (U.S.A.) .. 3,451
Rio Salado (Argentina) 6.703 Torun (Poland) .. .. 2.291
Golden Gate (U.S.A.) .. 6.2fi0 Quebec Bridge (Canada) 3,205
Rio Duke (Argentina) 6,866
NOTABLE TELESCOPES
REFRACTOR REFLECTOR
Size Observa- Location Size Observa- Location
in tory _ in tory
inches inches
40 Yerkea Williams Bay 30 Alleghny Pittsburgh,
U.S.A, U.S.A.
36 Lick Mt. Hamilton, 30 Risr.hoff-
Califomia sheim Nice. Franco
32-7 Vniv. of 30 Poidkova Leningrad
Paris Meudon, France u.s.s.r.
31-6 Astro- 200 Palomar - Mt. Palomar,
physical Potsdam, Ger- California
many
68
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Notable Telescopes — {Conoid.')
REFRACTOR
Size ■ Observa-
iinches) tory
100 Mt. Wil-
son
82 McDonald
74 Danlap
72 Dominion
Astro-
physical
REFLECTOR
Location Size Observa- Location
{inches) tory
69 Perkins Delaware, u.s.
Pasadena, Cali- 61 Harvard Harvard tr.s.
fomia 60 Bloem-
Mt. Locke, ti,s.A. fontein S. Africa
Eichmoad Hill, 60 Mt. Wil~
Canada son Pasadena, tj.S.
60 Cordoba Argentina
Victoria, B.C.
LIBRARIES OF THE WORLD
Books
Mss.
Books
Mss.
British Museum
Bibliotheque Na-
6,000,000
-•
Bibliotheque Ro-
yale (Brussels)
2,000,00
tionale {Paris)
State Library
6,000,000
150,000
Biblioteck Na-
cional (Madrid)
" 1 , 500,000
{Berlin)
State Library
2,850,000
• •
Royal Library
(Stockholm)
800,000
{Munich)
Nationalbliothek
2,000,000
• •
Lenin State Li-
brary (illoscow)
15,000,000
(Vienna)
Biblioteca Nazio-
1,450,000
••
Public Library
(Leningrad)
10,000,000
nale {Naples)
Biblioteca Nazio-
1,400,000
11,000
National Diet Li-
brary (Tokio)
3,600,000
nale (Florence)
Biblioteca Nazio-
3,450,000
• •
Library of the
Congress
nale (Rome) .
University Library
.1,940,000
(Washington)
New York Public
10,000,000
(Amsterdam)
.1,500,000
. .
Library (N.Y.)
5,800,000
LARGEST BELLS
Approximate Approximate
weight in weight in
tons tons
Great Bell at Moscow
St. Paul’s (London)
17
(World’s largest)
220
Great Tombs (Oxford)
17
Great Bell, Mingoon,
Seus (France)
13
(Burma)
125
York
12
Great Bell (Peking)
55
Erfuz Cathedral (Prus-
Novgorod (Russia) .
31
sian Saxony)
13
Bell (Cologne Cathedral)
26
Montreal (R. G. Cathe-
St. Issue's Cathedral,
dral)
13
(Leningard)
22
Big Ben (Westminster,
Oulmutz (Austria)
18
Eng.)
12
Vienna
18
Gorlitz (Silesia)
10
Notre Dame (Paris) . .
18
Brugs
10
GENERAL INFORMATION
69
TALL BUILDINGS AND TOWERS
No. of No. of
stories feet stories feet
Empire State (N.Y.) 102 1,250 Waldorf-Astoria
Chrysler (N.Y.) 77 1,046 (N.Y.) .. 49 626
Eiffel Tower (Paris) . . 984 Cathedrals
60 Wall Tower (N.Y.) 66 950 Ulm Cathedral (Ger.) . . 629
Bank of Manhattan St. John the Divine
(N.Y.) . . 71 927 (N.Y.) . . 600
E.C.A. (U.S.) . . 70 850 Cologne Cathedral . . 612
Woolworth (N.Y.) 60 792 Rouen Cathedral (Pr.) . . 485
City Bank (N.Y.) 64 745 Strausshurg Cathe-
Terminal Tower (U.S.) 62 708 dral (Germany) .. 468
600 6th Avenue 60 700 St. Stephen’s Cathe-
Metropolitan Bldg. dral (Vienna) . . . . 441
(N.Y.) .. 60 700 Salsbury .. 440
Chanin Tower (U.S.) 66 680 Seville . . 400
Lincoln (U.S.) 63 673 Antwerp . . 397
Irvine Trust (U.S.) 60 664 Pyramid of Cheops
General Electric (U.S.) 60 641 (Egypt) . . . . 460
HIGHEST AND LARGEST DAMS
Highest (Concrete) feet Largest (Earth fill and or rocTc-
♦Grand Dixence (Switxer- fill) Cubic yds
land) . . 921 Port Peck (U.S.
♦Mauvoisin Do. .. 776 1940) .. 126,628,288
Hoover (U.S. 1936) . . 726 Oahe (U.S.) . . 78,000,000
Bhakra (India, 1954) . . 680 Garrison (U.S.) . . 69,000,000
Shasta (U.S. 1945) .. 602 Fort Randall (U.S.) 27,000,000
Kurobe No. 4 (Japan) . . 590 Kingsley (U.S. 1940) 26,000,000
Tignes (France) .. 590 Gatun (U.S. 1912) 26,107,000
Hungry Horse (U.S.) . . 664 Denison (U.S. 1944) 18,290,000
Grand Coulee (U.S. 1942) 660 Sardis (U.S. 1940) 16,562,000
Ross (U.S. 1950) .. 645 Hansen (U.S. 1940) 14,700,000
Fontana (U.S. 1944) . . 480 Cherry Creek (U.S.
Anderson Ranch (U.S.1950) 456 1950) . . 14,650,000
Chambon (France, 1934) 450
Pine Plat (U.S.) .. 440
Detroit (U.S.) .. 440
WORLD’S GREATEST RESERVOIRS
Capacity
Wainganga, (India) 33,300,000
Lake Mead, Hoover
(U.S.) . . 31,142,000
Oahe . . 23,600,000
Garrison . . 23,000,000
Fort Peck . . 19,400,000
Capacity
Pine Portage . • 11,^3^000
Roosevelt Lake,
Grand Coulee .. 9,402,000
Lac Casse, Canada 8,800,000
Bhakra, India • • 7,400,000
Hirakud, India . . 6,750,000
♦Under construction.
70
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
I
WORLD’S LONGEST SPANS BY TYPES OF BRIDGES
Type
Bridge Location Y ear
Completed
Cable Suspen-
sion
Transporter
Bridge
Cantilever
Steel Arch
Eyebar Suspen-
sion
Concrete Arch
Continuous Truss
Simple Truss
Continuous
Girder
Vertical Lift
Wichert Truss
Swing Span
Tubular Girder
Timber Span
Golden Gate
Sky Ride
^Quebec
Kill Van Kull
’Florianopolis
Sando
Dubuque
’Metropolis
Dusseldorf-
Neuss
’Capecord Canal
Homestead
’Fort Madison
’Britannia
•McKenzie
River
Pretressed Con-
crete Girder
Bascule
Simple Girder
Masonry Arch
Single- Leap
Bascule
Concrete Girder
Worms
•Soult Ste.
Marie
Harlem River
Plauen
•IGth St,
Villeneuve
San Francisco 1937
Chicago 1933
Canada 1917
New York 1931
Brazil 1926
Sweden 1943
Mississippi River 1943
Ohio River 1917
Rhine River 1951
Massachusetts 1935
Pittesburgh 1937
Mississippi River 1927
Menai Straits 1950
Coburg 1926
Germany 1953
Michigan 1914
New York 1951
Saxony 1903
Chicago 1919
Seine River 1939
BIGGEST, LARGEST, GREATEST, LONGEST
Span
(ft.)
4,200
1,850
1,800
1,652
1,114
866
845
720
676
544
533i
625
460
S80
S76
336
330
295
260
266
Largest archipalago
Highe.'Jt Mountain peak
Largest Desert
Largest Palace
Biggest Ship
Largest Diamond Mine
Tallest Statue
Tallest Church
Largest Church
Largest Diamond
Rainiest Place
. . Indonesia.
.. Mount Everest (29.028 ft.).
.. Sahara (Africa) 3,000,000 sq. m.
.. Vatican (Rome).
. . Queen Elizabeth (83.673 tons).
. . Kimberly. South Africa.
.. Statue of Liberty (N.Y.) from heel to
head 111 ft. ; base of the pedastal
to the top of the torch 305 ft.
.. TJlm. Cathedral (Ger. 629 ft. high).
.. Church of St. Peters (Rome).
.. The Cullinan.
. . Cherrapunji, Assam.
•Railroad Bridge
GENERAL INFORMATION
71
Biggest, Largest, Greatest, Longest — {Conoid.)
Biggest & Deepest Ocean ..
Longest Corridor
Longest Rly. Platform
liargest Pearl
Largest Bell
Largest Concrete Structure
Largest Sewage Disposal
Plant
Longest man-made water
supply line
Deepest Mine
Longest railway run ..
Largest Telescope
Largest Museum
Longest River . .
Largest River (in vol.) ..
Largest Railway Station . .
Largest Dome
Largest Building ..
Tallest To%ver ..
Largest group of Islands ..
Largest Delta . .
Largest Royal Palace
Deepest hole
Highest capital city
Highest Straight Gravity
Dam ..
Largest Theatre
Longest Dam
Highest Dam
Largest Single Country
Largest Freshwater Lake . .
Highest Lake ..
Loftiest active volcano
Largest & populous continent
Longest Wall
Highest Suspension Bridge
Tallest Building
Pacific Ocean (64,000,000 sq. _m.).
Rameswaram Temple Corridor, S,
India. About 4,000 ft. long.
Storvik (Sweden) 2,470 ft.
Beresford-Hope Pearl (1,800 grams).
Tsar Kolokol, Kremlin (Moscow)
weights 220 tons.
Grand Dixence (Switzerland).
Chicago Sewage System (U.S.A.).
Colorado Aqueduct (242 miles, U.S.A.).
Ooregum Section of the Kolar Gold-
Fields, Mysore, nearly 10,000 ft. deep.
Riga to Vladivostock (6,000 miles).’
At Mt. Palomar, California, diameter
of reflector is 200 inches.
British Museum (London).
Mississippi-Missouri.
Amazon.
Grand Central Terminal (New York)
with 47 platforms.
Gol Gambuz (Bijapur) 144 ft. in ac-
tual diameter.
The Pyramid at Gizeh, Egypt.
Eiffel Tower, Paris, 984 ft. high.
Malaya Archipelago.
Sundarban Delta, 8,000 sq. m.
The Palace at Madrid.
An oil well of 15,279 ft. in Texas, U.S.
La Paz (Bolivia).
Bakra Dam (India) 680 ft.
Blanquita Theatre (Havana) with-
6,500 Seats.
Gabel Awlia Dam, Egypt (16,400 ft
long).
Manvoisin ( Switzerland, _ 776 ft.).
Brazil (3,285,319 sq. miles).
Lake Superior.
Lake Titicaca (South America), alti-
tude 12,607 ft.
Cotopaxi (19,550 ft.), Equador.
Great Wall of China over 1,500 miles.
Royal Gorge, Colorado, U.S.A. 12,740'
ft. high.
Empire State Building (102 stories,
1,472 ft.).
72
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Biggest, Largest, Greatest, Longest — (Concld.)
Highest Country
Largest office building
Longest Tunnel
Largest Peninsula
Highest Tree
Largest Island
Densest Population
Largest Planetary Body
Biggest Park
Largest Archway
Highest City
Highest Airfield
Longest Thoroughfare
.. Tibet (Averaging 16,000 ft.).
. . Pentagon (U.S.A.) 34 acres, where
32,000 people work daily ; floor area,
approximately 6,500,000 sq. ft. has
17 miles of corridor.
. . Simplon (Switzerland) 12 m. 458 yds.
long.
India.
Giant Sequoia tree, Hamholdt State
Park, California— ^64 ft. high and
estimated to weigh nearly 2,000 tons.
Greenland (827,200 sq. miles).
Monaco (5,000 per sq. m.).
Jupiter.
Yellowstone National Park (U.SA.).
3,350 sq. miles.
Sydney Harbour Bridge (Australia).
Phari, Tibet, altitude 14,300 ft.
Ladakh airfield (Kashmir), 14,230ft.
Broadway in New York.
GREAT INVENTIONS
Invention
Date
Inventor
Nation
Adding Machine
1888
Burroughs
U.S.
Airplane
1903
Wright Bros.
U.S.
Air brake, railroad
1868
Westinghouse
U.S.
Airplane, hydro
1911
Curtiss
U.S.
Airship, Periol
1898
Dumont
Brazil
Airship, rigid
1899
Zeppelin
Ger.
Aluminium
1827
Wohler
Ger.
Antogiro
1920
Dela Cierva
Sp.
Automobile, gasoline
1887
Daimler
Ger.
Bakelite
• •
1908
Baekeland
U.S.
Balloon
1783
Montgolfier Bros. Pr.
Barometer
1643
Torriceli
Italy
Barometer, Aneroid
1799
W. J. Cante
Braille alphabet
, ,
1829
Braille.
Fr.
Bicycle
1842
MacMillan
Scotland
Block Signals, Ry.
1867
Hall
U.S.
Burner, Gas
1855
Bunsen
Ger.
Cash register
1879
Bitty
U.S.
Camera lucida
1807
Wollaston
Br.
Camera obscura
1660
Porta
It.
Cinematograph
1889
Friese-Greene
Eng.
Do. Talking
1927
U.S.A.
Caterpiller Tractor
, ,
1903
Holt
Cellophane
• .
1912
Brandenberger
Swiss
Celluloid
. .
1865
Parkes
Eng.
Cement, Portland
• •
1845
Aspdin
Eng.
GENERAL INFORMATION
Great Inventions — (Confd.)
Clock, Pendulum
Cotton Gin
Cream Separator
Camera, Kodak
Diesel engine
Disk Record
Dynamite
Dynamo
Elevator, brake , ,
Engine, automobile . .
Engine, internal com-
bustion
Engraving, half-tone
Electric light, incandes-
cent
Electric Fan
Fountain Pen
Galvanometer
Gas lighting
Gramophone
Gun cotton
Gyroscope
Gyrocompass
Gas mantle
Glass, laminated
Helicopter
Heliograph
Iridium
Ice-making machine
Indigo, synthetic
1657
1793
1880
1888
1895
1887
1867
1831
1862
1879
1885
1893
1879
1887
1884
1820
1792
1877
1865
1852
1906
1893
1909
1909
1877
1802
1861
1880
Lamp, arc .. 1879
Lamp, incandescent . . 1879
Lamp, Mei-cury-Vapour 1912
Lamp, Safety . . 1816
Lightning rod . . 1762
Linoleum . . 1860
Linotype • . 1884
Locomotive, 1st practical 1829
Locomotive, Steam . . 1801
Loom, power . . 1785
Litho^aphy . . 1796
Machine gun . . 1861
Margarine . . 1868
Match, Safety . . 1865
Match, friction . . 1827
Match, phosphorous . . 1831
Mercerization of Tex-
tiles . . 1877
Huygens
Whitney
De Laval
Eastman
Diesel
Berliner
Nobel
Faraday
Otis
Benz
Daimler
Ives
Edison
Wheeler
Waterman
Sweigger
Murdoch
Edison
Schoenbein
Foucault
Sperry
Welsbach
Benedictus
Breguet
Mance
Brewster
Gorrue
Baeyer
Walker
Brush
Edison
Hewtit
Davy
Franklin
Walton
Mergenthaler
Stephenson
Trevithik
Cartwright
Senefelder
Gatling
Mege-Mouries
Lundstrom
Walker
Sauna
Mercer
Dutch
U.S.
Swedish
U.S.
Ger.
Swedish
Eng.
U.S.
Ger.
Ger.
U.S.
U.S.
ii.s.
Ger.
Scottish
U.S.
Ger.
Fr.
U.S.
Aus.
Fr.
Fr.
Eng,
Eng.
U.S.
Ger.
U.S.
U.S.
U.S.
U.S.
Eng.
U.S.
Eng.
U.S.
Eng.
Eng.
Eng.
U.S.
Fr.
Swed.
Eng.
Fr.
Eng.
74
HINDUSTAN TEAK-BOOK
Great Inventions — (concld.)
Jificropiione
1877
Berliner
U.S,
ilonotype
1887
Lanslon
XJ.Sa
lilotor A.C.
1892
Tesla
TJ.S,
Slotor Car (Petrol)
1887
Daimler I
Ger.
Jlotor Cycle
1885
(do)
Ger.
lilower, lavn
186S
Hills
U.S.
Movie Projector
1894
Jenkins
U.S.
Nvlon
. .
1937
Du Pont
U.S.
Parachute descent, 1st.
1785
Blanchard
Fr.
Phosphorus
1669
Brandt
Ger.
Pendulum
1581
Galileo
Italian
Photo, Colour
1891
Lippman
Fr.
Photo film
1888
Eastmaii-
Goodwin
U.S.
Photography
1814
Niepce
Fr.
Pin, Safety
1849
Hunt
U.S.
Piano
1709
Cristofori
It.
Powder, Smokeless
1863
Schultze
Ger.
Printing:, Movable type
1440
Guttenburg
Ger.
Printing Press, rotary
1847
R. Hoe
Ger.
Printing Press, Rotary
1846
Hoe
U.S.
Phonograph
, ,
1877
Edison
U.S.
Pneumatic Rubber Tyre
1888
Dunlop
U.S.
Propeller, Screw
1837
Cricsson
Swedish
Radar
1922
Taylor & Totmg
U.S.
Padio telephone
• •
1906
Dp Forest
U.S.
Pmdio
1895
Marconi
Ital.
Radio beacon
1928
Donovan
U.S.
Padioactivity
1896
Becquerel
Fr.
Pailway, Steam
1825
Stephenson
Eng.
Rayon
, *
1883
Swan
Eng.
Rubber, vulcanised
1839
Goodyear
U.S.
Revolver
18.35
Colt
U.S.
Record, Disc
1896
Berliner
U.S.
Semaphone
1794
Chappe
Fr.
Sextant
1590
Brahe
Ger.
Soda water
1907
Thomson
Eng.
Spectacles
, „
1310
Armatus
It.
Spectroscope
1861
Kirchhoff &
Bunsen
Ger.
Steamboat
1807
Fulton
U.S.
Sewing Machine
, *
1846
Howe
U.S.
Sleeping Car
, *
1897
Pullman
U.S.
Steam Engine
« «
1765
Watt
Eng.
•Spinning Jenny
1769
Jlargreaves
Eng.
Steel
• «
1857
Bissemer
Eng.
5teel, Stainless
1916
Brearly
Eng.
Stereoscope
18.38
Wheatstone
Eng.
Talking Machine
• •
1877
Edison
U.S.
GENERAL INFORMATION
75
Great Invention — (Concld.),
Tanl<, military .. 1914 Swinton Eng.
Telegraph, Magnetic 1837 Morse U.S.
Telephone .. 1876 Be.l U.S.
Tractor, Caterpiller .. 1900 Holt U.S.
Telephone amplifier 1912 De Forest U.S.
Telescope, Reflecting 1688 Newton Eng.
Telescope, Refractive 1250 Roger Becon Eng,
Televi.son .. P-ii'-il Sent
Thermometer (Air) . . 1592 Galileo Itelian
Torpedo .. In.O \v ..i.eiead Eng.
Thermometer .. 1701 Reaumer_ Fr.
Thermometer . . 1714 Fahrenheit Ger.
Tire, Pneumatic . . 1888 Dunlop U.S.
Typewriter .. 1868 Sholes U.S.
Tank, Military .. 1914 Swinton Eng,
"Welding, Electric . . 1877 Thomson U.S.
"Waterproofing, rubber 1823 Macintosh Eng.
Wireless Telephone . . 1902 Fessenden U.S.
X’Ray . . 1895 Roentgen Ger.
DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS IN ELECTRICITY
1745 — Von Kleist : Leyden jar
condenser.
1752 — Franklin : Lightning rod
and nature of lightning.
1791 — Galvani: Theory of animal
electricity.
1800 — Volta (It.) : Electric bat-
tery.
1805 — Brugnatelli (It.) : Elec-
troplating.
1810 — Davy (Eng.) : Electric
Arc lamp.
1816 — Rene Lainnec : Stethos-
cope.
1823 — Sturgeon (Br.) ; Electro-
magnet.
1825 — Faraday (Eng.) : Ben-
zine.
1826 — Balard (Fr.) : Bromine.
1828 — Henry ; Electromagnetism
and induction.
1831 — ^Faraday (Br.) : Electric
dynamo.
1832 — Morse : Electric telegraph.
1834 — Moritz Jacobi ; Electric
1861 — Paccinnote (It.) : Elec-
tric armature.
1870 — Gramme; First industrial
dynamo.
187G — Bell: Telephone.
1878 — Crookes; Cathode ray.
1878 — Edison : Electric incandes-
cent lamp.
1885 — Stanley ; Electric Trans-
former.
1888 — Hertz (Ger.) : Electrical
Waves.
1892 — Tesla ; Alternating cur-
rent motor.
1892 — Steinmetz : Laws of alter-
nating current.
1895 — Roentgen : X-ray.
1896 — Marconi : Practical wire-
less.
1897 — Thomson : Isolation of the
electron.
1904 — Fleming; First diode radio
lube.
1907 — De Forest : Triode radio
Motor. tube.
1852 — Gauss: System of absolute 1914 — Coolidge ; Tungsten fila-
clectric measurements. ment lamp.
1925 — Baird : Television.
76
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
medicine and physiology
Circulation. ^ Blood 1907 Shull ; Development
1737_Linnaeus 7“" Cla^sTfic^Uon
■I > 70 ^ T and animals.
1796— Jennp : Vaccination for
small-pox.
■ Chlorine.
iRi^n = Iodine.
= Iodine-
1818— Faraday (Eng.) ; Ether
(anaesthetic).
1819— Laennec : Invention of
stethoscope.
1820— Pelletier _ & Caventon
loor o • Quinine.
1825 — Scheele (Swed.) : Glyce-
cerine.
1831 Eugene Souherran : Chlo-
roform.
1842— W. Long (U.S.) .-Anesthe-
tic ether.
1847— Stapson (Eng.) ; Chloro-
1880 — Nicolaier :
1907-
. Salvarsan.
McCollum : vita-
of
1880-
. Discovery
utanus germs.
-Eberth (Ger.) ; Discovery
IRS? bacillus.
1882— Metchnikov : Function of
18 R? corpuscles.
Klobs: Diphtheria bacil-
ius, — -ttoDim (U.S.) ’
1885— Pasteur (Fr.) : Prerentive
of rabies. — waksman (TJ.S )
1890— T75tyii1 *'
of rabies.
1890— Emil von Behring (Ger)'
189 4 S’-Phl^hcria antitoxin.
1894— Kitasato : Discovery of
ion., plague bacillus.
1894— Roux : Perfection of diph-
1 RQQ U}®ria antitoxin.
1901 Aspirin,
laui— Takamine : First hormone
isolated. Isolation of ad-
renalinc.
1906 — ^Wasserman : Test fn.
sj-phillis. ^
ciupineni of
hybrid com.
-Willslatter : Constitution
inin chlorophyll.
1910— Pavlov : conditioned re-
flex.
1910 — Ehrlich
1912- 14 — E. V.
mine A.
Vitamin C.
1913 Schick ; Test of suscepti-
5919 tn diphtheria.
1913— Goldberger : Cause and
ir.ic control of pellagra.
1915-16--E. V. McCollum : Vita-
mine B.
1918 ^Rabi (Ger.) ; Quinine, syn-
thetic.
1920— C^mette, Guerin (Fr.) :
mIIIv t; Vitamin D.
1922— E. V McCollum : Vitamin
Insulin.
1926— Minot, Whipple and Mur-
phy : Liver treatment of
ansemia.
1932— Domagk ; Sulfa drugs as
"sctericides.
1994~n' = Deuterium
1934— Domagk (Ger.) : Sulfani-
lamidc.
1935 W. M. Stanley : Virus,
crystalized.
1940— Roblin (U.S.) ; Sulfadia
zine.
vu.o./ : Strep-
tomycin.
1946— Du Vigneaud ; Synthetic
penicillin.
1948— B. M. Duggar (U.S.) ; An-
reomycin. ^
1949— Armour & Co (U.S.) :
ccine.
GENERAL INFORMATION
77
THEORIES
Alternating Current, Laios of : Heredity, Laws of : G. Mendel,
Steinmetz, 1592. 1865.
Atomic Theory : Joint Dalton, Intelligence testing, modem : A.
1803. Binet & T. Simon, 1905.
Atomic numbers : H. Moseley, Isotopes, Theory of : P. Soddy,
1913. 1912.
Atom Smashing Theory : Ra- Light, Electromagnetic theory
therford, 1919. . of 3. C. MaKwell, 1873.
Blood circidalion : W. Sarvey, Midtiple proportion, Laios of :
1628. John Dalton, 1808.
Classifieation of Plants & Ani- Molecidar hypothesis : A. Avo-
wals : C. Lennaeus, 1737-53. gadro, 1811.
■Combustion, Nature of : Lavoi- Ohm’s Law : G. S. Ohm, 1827.
sier, 1777. Ongin of Species : Darwin,
Conditioned Reflex : J. Pavlov, 1859.
1910. Periodic table : D. Mendeleev,
Displacement of water, Theory 1869.
of : Archimedes, 3 Century Photo-electric cell. Principles of:
B.C. A. Becquerel, 1839.
Dynamic theory of heat : Kel- Psychoanalysis : S. Freud, 1904.
vin, 1851. Quantum Theory : Max Von
Electromagnetic Waves : Hertz, Plank, 1901.
1886. Refraction of light. Laws of :
Electron, Wave nature of : Louis W. Snell, 1621.
de Broglie, 1924. _ Relativity, theories of : A. Ein-
Evolution by natural selection : stein 1905-53.
Darwin, 1859. Spectrum Analysis : R. Bunsen
Falling bodies, law of : Galileo, & G. Kirchnoff, 1859.
1590. Sidfanilamide Theory : Gelmo
Gravitation, Law of: Newton, (Gr.), 1908.
1687. Uranium fission theory : Hahn,
Germ Theory : Pasteur, 1876. (Gr.), Bohr. (Danish), Fermi
Gases, Laws governing : Joseph (Italian), Wheeler, Einstein
Gay-Lussac, 1809. (U.S.).
Water, Synthesis of : H. Cavan-
dish, 1781.
NOBEL PRIZES
[Dr. Alfred Bernhard Nolel, a Sv.'edish Scientist, was' born in
1833 and died in 1896. He was the inventer of dynamite. He left a
fortune of £1,750,000 and a large part of this was bequeathed to a
fund which was to provide annual prizes to those persons who had
most contributed to the benefit of manldnd. These are five prizes,
awarded for physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature
and peace. Each prize is worth £ 12,000.]
Physics
1901 W. K. Roentgen (Ger.). 1903 A. H. Becquerel, France
1902 H. A. LorenTz and P. and_ Pierre and Marie
Zeeman (Denmark). Curie (France).
78
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
Physics — {Conoid.).
1904 Lord Rayleigh (England).
1905 Philipp Lenard (Ger.).
1906 3. J. Thomson (Eng.).
1907 A. A. Michelson (U.S.).
1908 G. Lippman (Fi-ance).
1909 G. Marconi (Italy) and F.
Braun (Germany).
1910 J. D. Van der Waals (Hol-
land).
1911 W. Wien (Ger.).
1912 Gustaf Dalen (Sweden).
1913 H. Hamerlinghonnes
(Denmark).
1914 M. Von Laue (Ger.).
1915 W. H. Bragg and W. L.
Bragg (Eng.),
1916 No oirnrd.
1917 C. G. Barika (Eng.).
1918 Max Planck (Germany).
1919 J. Stark (Ger.).
1920 C. E. Guillaume (Swite.).
1921 A. Einstein (Ger.).
1922 Niels Bnhr (Denmark).
1923 R. A. Millikan (U.S.).
1924 Karl M, G. Seigbahn
(Sweden).
1925 James Franck (Ger.).
& Gustav Hertz (Ger.).
1926 Jean B. Perrin (Fran'-e).
1927 Arthur Compton (U.S.)
and Prof. Charles T. R.
Wilson (Ene.)
1928 Prof. 0. W. Ricardson
(Eng.).
1929 Due L. V. de Broglie (Fr.).
1930 Sir C. V. Raman (India).
1931 No award.
1932 W. Heisenberg (Ger.).
1933 P. A. M. Dirac (Eng.)
and Erwin Schroedinger
(Austria),
1934 No award.
1935 J. Chadwick (Eng.).
1936 V. F. Hess (Austria) and
C. D. Anderson (U.S.).
1937 C. J. Davisson (U.S.).
(3. P. Thomson (Eng.).
1938 E. Fermi (Italy).
1939 E. 0. Lawrence (U.S.).
1940-42 No awards.
1943 Otto Sterm (U.S.).
1944 I. I. Rabi ^U.S.).
1945 W. Pauli (Austria).
1946 P. W. Bridgman (U.S.).
1947 Sir E. Appleton (Eng.).
1948 P. M. S. Blackett (Eng.).
1949 Hideki Yukawa (Japan).
19.50 C. F. Powell (Eng.).
1951 Sir John Cockcroft (Eng.)
and E. T. S. Walton (Eire).
1952 E. Purcell & Felix Bloch
(U.S.)
19.53 Prof. Fritz Zemike.
1954 Dr. S. Max Bom & W.
Botbe (Ger.).
1955 W. E. Lamb & P. Kusch
(U.S.). _
1956 — Walter H. Brattain. W.
Shockley & John Bardeen
(U.S.).
Medicine and Physiology
1901 EL A. von Behring (Ger.). 1909 T. Kocher (Germany).
1902 Sir Ronald Ross (Eng.). 1910 A. Kossel (Germany).
1903 N. R. Finsen (Denmark). 1911 A. Gullstrand (Sweden).
1904 Ivan P. Pavlov (Russia). 1912 A. Carrel (America).
1905 Rohert Koch (Germany). 1913 Char'es Richet (France).
1906 Ramony Cajal (Snain) & 1914 R. Bamav (Austria).
Camillo Golgi (Ita'v). 191.5-18 No nirnrd.
1907 O. L. A. Laveran (Francel. 1919 Br. J. Bordet (Belgium).
1908 Paul Ehrlich (Ger.) & E, 1920 August Krogh (Denmark).
Metchnikoff (Fr.). 1921 No award.
GENERAL INFORMATION
7 &
Medicine and Physiology — (.Concld.).
1922 A. V. Hill (Eng.) and 1943 Henrik Dam (Copenhagen)
Otto Mayerhotf (Ger.). and Edward Doisy (U.S.).
1923 F. G. Banting and Dr. J. J. 1944 Joseph Erlanger and H. S.
R. McLeod (Canada). Gasser (U.S.).
1924 W. Einthoven (Holland). 1945 Sir A. Fleming, Sir How-
1925 No award. ard Florey and Dr. E. B.
1926 J. Fibiger (Denmark). Chain (Eng.).
1927 Julius W. Jauregg (Aust.). 1946 H. J. Muller (U.S.).
1928 Charles Nicolle (France). 1947 Dr. Carl F. and Mrs. P.
1929 F. G. Hopkins (Eng.). Cori (Czechoslovakia) and
& C. Eijkmann (Holland). B. A. Houssay (Brazil).
1930 Karl Landsteiner (US.) 1948 Paul Muller (Swiss.).
1931 Otto H. Warburg (Ger.). 1949 W. R. Hess (Swiss) & A.
1932 Sir C. Sherrington & C. D. F. E. Moniz (Portu-
E. D. Adrian (Eng.). gal).
1933 T. H. Morgan (U.S.). 1950 E. C. Kendall & Philip S.
1934 G. R. Minot, W. P. Mur- Hench (Switzerland) & T.
phy and G. H. Whipple ReicKstein (Swiss.).
(U.S.). 1951 Max Tbeiler (U.S.).
1935 Hans Spcmann (Ger.). 1952 S. Waksman (U.S.),
1936 Sir Henry Dale (Eng.) & 1953 Dr. Fritz A. Lipmann &
Prof. Otto Loewe (Aust.). Dr. Hans A. Krebs.
1937 Albert von Szent-gyorgyi 1954 Drs. J. F. Enders, F.
(Hungary). Robbins & T. Weller (U.S.).
1938 C. Heymans (Belg.). 1955 Hugo Theorell (Sweden).
1939 Prof. G. Domagk (Ger.). 1956 Andre Cournand (U.S.),
1940-42 No award. Dr. W. Forsmann (Ger.) &
D. W. Richards (U.S.).
Chemistry
1901 J. H. Hoff (Holland). 1919 No award.
1902 Emil Fischer (Germany). 1920 Walther Nemst (Ger.).
1903 S. A. Arrhenius (Sweden). 1921 Frederick Soddy (Eng.).
1904 Sir W. Ramsay (Eng.). 1922 F. W. Aston (Eng.).
1905 A. Von Baeyer (Ger.). 1923 Fritz Pregl (Austria).
1906 Henri Moissan (France). 1924 No award.
1907 E. Buchner (Germany). 1925 R. Zsigmondy (Ger.).
1908 Ernest Rutherford (Eng.). 1926 T. Svedberg (Sweden).
1909 Wilhelm Ostwald (Ger.). 1927 H. Wieland (Ger.). -
1910 Otto Wallach (Ger.). 1928 Dr. Adolf Windaus (Ger.).
1911 Marie Curie (France). 1929 A. Harden (Eng.) and
1912 V. Grignard and P. Saba- K. A. S. von Euler-Cheplin
tier (France). (Sweden).
1913 Alfred Werner (Swiss.). 1930 Hans Fischer (Germany).
1914 T. W. Richards (Eng.). 1931 Carl Bosch and F. Bergius
1915 R. Willstatter (Ger.). (Germany). _ .
1916-17 No award. 1932 Irving Langmair (U.S.).
1918 Firtz Haber (Germany). 1933 No award.
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
:S0
Chemistry—
1934 H. G. Urey (U.S.). ^ ^
1935 Frederic & Irene Joliot-
Cuiie (France).
1936 Feter J. "W. Dehye (Ger.).
1937 W. N. Haworth (Eng.) &
Panl Karrer (Swiss.).
1938 E. Kuhn (Ger.).*
1939 A. Bntenandt (Ger.) and
Leopold Ruzicka (Swiss.).
1940-42 No award.
1943 G. Heresy (Hnn.).
1944 Otto Hahn (Ger.).
1945 Arttnri Mrtanen (Finland).
1946 James B. Snmner, W. IL
Stanley & J. H. Northrop
(America).
-{Concld.').
1947 Robert Robinson (Eng.).
1948 Ame Telins (Sweden).
1949 W. F. Giangne (U.SA.).
1950 Otto Diels & Kent Adlei
(Germany).
1951 E. M. McMillian & G. T.
Seaborg (U.S_A.).
1952 Dr. A. J. P. Martin & E.
L. M. Synge (Eng.).
1953 Dr. H. Standinger
1954 Dr. L. Pauling (U.S-A).
1955 D. Mncent da Mgneaud.
1956 Sir Cyril Hirshelwood
(Eng.) & Prof. Nikolai
Semenov (U.S.SJl.).
Literature
1901 Rene F. A. SnUy-Fmd-
homme (France).
1902 T. klommsen (Germany).
1903 B. Bjomson (Norway).
1904 F. Mistral (France)
& Jose Ecbegaray (Spain).
1905 H. Sienkiewicz (Poland).
1906 G. Carduici (Italy).
1907 Rudyard Kipling (Eng.).
1908 R Eucken (Germany).
1909 Selma Largerlof (Sweden).
1910 Paul Heyse (Germany).
1911 JL Maeterlink (Belgium).
1912 G. Hauptmann (Ger.).
1913 Rabindranath Tagore (In-
dia).
1914 'No avcard.
1915 Romain Roiland (France).
1916 V. Heidenstam (Sweden).
1917 Karl Gjellerup and R
Pontoppidan (Denmark).
1918 No a-.card,
1919 C. Spitteler (Swiss.).
1920 Knnt Hamsun (Norway).
1921 Anatole France (France).
1922 J. Benavente (Spain).
1923 VT. B. Yeats (Ireland).
1924 TT. P.eymont (Poland).
:1925 G. B. Shaw (Eng.).
•Declined.
1926 Grazia Deled da (Italy).
1927 Henri Bergson (France).
1928 Sigrid Undset .(Norway).
1929 Thomas Mann (Germany)*
1930 Sinclair Lewis (U.S.).
1931 Erik A. Karlfeldt (Sweden).
1932 J. Galsworthy (England).
1933 Ivan (3. Bunin (Russia).
1934 Luigi Pirandello (Italy).
1935 No OTvard.
1936 Eugene O’Neil (U.S.).
1937 R. I»L du Gard (France)
1938 Pearl S. Buck (U.S.).
1939 Emil Sillanpaa (Finland).
1940-43 No atrard.
1944 J. Y. Jensen (Denmark).
1945 Gabriela Mistral (ChSe).
1946 Herman Hesse (Swiss).
1947 Andre Gide (France).
1948 T. S. Eliot (Eng.).
1949 Y7. Faullmex (U.S.).
1950 Bertrand Russell (Eng.).
1951 Par Lagerkvist (Sweden).
1952 Francois Mauriac (Fr.).
1953 "Winston ChurchiU (Eng.).
1954 E. Hemingway (U.S.).
1955 Halldor K. Lanness
(Iceland).
1956 Juen R. Jimenez (Spain).
GENERAL INFORMATION
81
Peace
1901 Henri Dunant (Switzer-
land) & F. Passy (Fr.).
1902 Elie Ducommun and A.
Gobat (Belgium).
1903 W. R. Cremer (Eng.).
1904 The Institute of Interna-
tional Law (Belgium).
1905 Bertha von Suttner (Aus-
tria).
1906 T. Roosevelt (U.S.).
1907 E. T. Moneta (Italy) and
Louis Renault (France) .
1908 K. P. Arnoldson (Sweden)
& Frederick Bajer (Den).
1909 Baron de Constant (Fr.)
& A. Beemaert (Belgium).
1910 International Permanent
Peace Bureau (Swiss.).
1911 Prof. T. M. C. Asser (Hol-
land) & A. Fried (Austria).
1912 Elihu Root (U.S.).
1913 H. la Fontaine (Belgium).
1914-16 No award.
1917 International Red Gross,
(Geneva).
1918 No award.
1919 Woodrow Wilson (U.S.).
1920 Leon Bourgeois (France).
1921 K. H. Branting (Sweden)
and Christian L. Lange
(Norway).
1922 F. Nansen (Norway).
1923-24 No award.
1925 Charles G. Dawes (Il.S.) &
Sir A. Chamberlain (Eng.).
1926 Aristide Briand (France)
& G. Stresemann (Germ.).
1927 F, Buisson (France) and
Ludwig Quidde (Germany).
1928 No award.
1929 F. B. Kellogg (U.S.)
1930 L. 0. J. Soderblom (Swe-
den).
1931 Jane Addams & Nicholas
M. Butler (U.S.).
1932 No award.
1933 Norman Angell (Eng.).
1934 A. Henderson (Eng.).
1935 Carl von Ossietosky (Ger,).
1936 C. de S Lamas (Argentine).
1937 Viscount Cecil (Eng.).
1938 Nansen International Office
for Refugees (Geneva).
1939-43 No award.
1944 International Committee
of Red Cross (Swiss).
1945 Cordell Hull (U.S.).
1946 Eamily G. Balch and John
Mott (U.S.).
1947 American Friends Service
Committee (U.S.) and Br.
Society of Friends Service
Council (Eng.).
1948 No aroard.
1949 Lord Boyd-Orr (Scotland).
1950 Ralph J. Bunche (U.S.).
1961 Leon JohnaUX (France).
1962 Albert Schweitzer.
1953 George C. Marshall (U.S.).
1954 No Award.
1956 U. N. High Commissioner,
for Refugees.
1956 No award.
INDIAN STONES AGAINST PLANETARY ACTIONS
Sun [Ravi) . . Ruby
Mars (Mangal) . . Coral
Moon [Chandra) . . Pearl
Mercury [Budh) . . Emerald
Jupiter [Brihas-
pati) . . Pokraj
Venus [Sukra) . . Diamond
Saturn [Shani) ., Sapphire
Ascending Node. , Gomed
[Rahoo)
Descending Node. . Cat’s eye
[Ketoo)
6
82
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
BIRTH STONES
January— Garaet — Constancy. August — P eridot, Sardonyx—
February — Amethyst — Sincerity. married happiness.
March — Aquamarine, Blue Stone September — S apphire — clear
— Courage. thinking.
April — Diamond — Innocence. October — O pal. Tourmaline —
May — Emarald — ^Love, Success. Hope.
June — Pearl, Alexandrite Moon- November — Tapaz—
stone — Health. December — Turquoise, Zircon —
July — Ruby — Contentment. Prosperity.
ANIMAL AND BIRD RECORDS
Tallest Animal — Giraffe. Largest of the sea birds — ^Alba-
Largest land animal — Elephant. tross.
Easiest Bird — Swift, sometimes Fastest animal — Cheetah,
flies 200 miles per hour. Largest sea animal — Blue Whale-
Largest quadruped of the dog Smallest Bird — Humming bird.
family — Wolf, Longest lived creature — Blue
Largest animal of the cat Whale (500 years).
family — Lion. _ Largest of the flat fish — ^Helibut.
Largest of man-like or anthro- Longest necfc— Giraffe.
paid apes — Gorilla. Largest living bird — Ostrich,
Heaviest bird — Condor. '
PERIOD OF GESTATION OF VARIOUS ANIMALS
Bear
7 months
Lion
.. 16 weeks
Beaver
4 months
Man
. . 9 months
Camel . ,
13 months
Opossum
. . 26 days
Cat .
55 to 63 days
Pig
p. 4 months
Cow
62 to 63 days
Puma
. . 15 weeks
Elephant
20 to 22 months
Rabbit
.. 30 to 32 days
Fox
62 to 63 days
Rat
. . 20 days
Giraffe
14 months
Sheep
. . 6 months
Goat
5 months
Squirrel
. . 30 days
Guinea pig
62 days
Tapir
. . 10 to 11 months
Horse
11 months
Wolf
.. 62 to 63
days
Kangaroo
39 days
SPEEDS
In Air
m.p.h. Arrow
.. 200
Carp
0-9
Woodcock
. . 13 Dive bomber . . 725
Plying fish
35
Vulture
» . 89 Transport
plane 195
Sail boat
30
Robin
. . 36 Bullet 2,000 ft. per
Passenger liner 35
Swallow
. . 110 second.
Light Cruiser
50
Homing pegion
62
Torpedo boat
60
Duck Hawk
. . 180 In water
m.p.h.
Outboard motor
Golden Eagle
. . 120 Swimmer
4-01
boat
74-39
Fighter plane
Perch
1-3
Racing speed
(about)
.. 700 Pike
10
boat
141-74
GENERAL INFORMATION
83
S p eeds — (Concld.)
On land
m.p.h.
Runner
21.7
Gazelle
60 Speed-test auto
_
Turtle
.01
White-tailed
mobile
394-h
Coral Snake
0.72
deer
49 Cheeta
70
Race horse
42-3
Greyhound
36 Steamlined
Rabbit
45
train
135 -h
Skater
25-3
HEIGHTS AND DEPTHS
Main achievements in the sky
Highest flight by balloon carrying instruments . .
Highest rocket flight
Highest flight in plane
Highest flight by passenger-carrying balloon
On and under the land
Highest point on land (Mt. Everest)
Tallest structure (Empire State Building)
Deepest oil well (Kern County, California)
Deepest mine (gold mine, Johannesburgh)
Under the Sea
Deepest point reached by submarine
Deepest point by man in rubber suit
Deepest point by man in metal suit
Deepest ocean bed in the Pacific Ocean
Greatest depth man has reached in the ocean by
bathycaphe
140,000 ft.
over 250 miles
83,235 ft.
72,395 ft.
21,018 ft.
1,472 ft.
21,480 ft.
9,180 ft.
800 ft.
450 ft.
500 ft.
35,640 ft.
13,287 ft.
LARGEST SHIPS
Name Gross tons Length Breadth Depth Speed
(ft.)
(ft.)
(ft.)
[knots)
Arcadia (Brit.)
29,736
687-7
90-2
35-7
22
Augustus (Italy)
27,090
680-4
87-5
33-0
21
Britannic (Brit.)
27,666
683-6
82-4
48-6
18
Capetown Castle (Brit.)
27,002
702-9
82-6
42-0
20
Caronia (British)
34,183 •
687-6
91-4
48-6
22
Cristoforo Colombo (Italy)
29,100
626-6
89-9
50-1
23
Edinburgh Castle (Brit.)
28,705
717-9
84-0
43-9
22
Georgic (Brit.)
27,469
682-8
82-4
48-6
18
Giulio Cesare (Italy)
27,078
680-6
87-5
33-0
21
Himalaya (Brit.)
27,950
681-7
90-8
36-5
22
Iberia (Brit.)
28,000
686-0
90-7
35-5
22
He do France (Fr.)
44,356
763-6
91-9
28-5
23
Liberte (France)
61,839
893-4
101-9
48-0
26i
Mauretania (British)
35,674
739-4
89-4
61-7
23
Nicuw Amsterdam (Neth.)
36,667
713-7
88-3
60-0
215
Orcades (British)
28,164
681-7
90-8
35-5
22
84
HINDUSTAN TEAR-BOOK
Oronsay (British)
Orsova (British)
Pasteur (France)
Pretoria Gastle (British) .
Queen Elizabeth (British)
Queen Mary (British)
United States (U.S^A.)
Ships —
{Coneld.)
27,632
681-7
90-8
35-5
22
28,790
690-0
90-6
35-5
22
30,447
670-7
88-0
52-6
22
28,705
717-9
84-0
43-9
oo
83,673
987-4
118-6
68-4
2Si
81,237
975-2
118-6
68-5
2Si
53,329
916-S
101-6
39-0
29
ATLANTIC BLUE RIBAND
1935 Normaiidie (France) 80,000 tons 4 days 3 hrs. 2n.
1936 Queen Mary (British) 81,237 tons 4 days 0 hrs. 27ib.
1936 Queen Mary (British) 81,237 tons 3 days 23 hrs. 57m.
1937 Normandie (Prance) 80,000 tons 3 days 23 hrs. 2m.
1938 Queen Mary (British) 81,237 tons 3 days 21 hrs. 45m.
1938 Q!ice7z Mary (British) 81,237 tons 3 days 20 hrs. 42m.
1952 United States (U.S.A.) 53,329 tons 3 days 10 hrs. 40m.
RECORD FLIGHTS AND JUMPS
Longest flight of Record distance of
homing pegeon 7,200 miles ski jumper 350.96 ft.
Firing range of Longest recorded
average heavy kick of a football 88 yds.
Gun over 20 miles Record baseball
"White-faced gib- throvr 44S ft. 5i is.
bon’s leap 40 ft.
Jump of a grass-
hopper 16 ft. 8 in.
DECORATIONS & MEDALS
^^ctoria Cross (Great Britain)
Iron Cross (Germany)
Legion of Honour (iSance)
Croix de Guerre (Prance)
Victory Medal (U.SN.)
NATIONAL AND
China . . Narcissus.
England . . Rose.
France . . Fleur-de-lis.
Germany . . Comflorver.
Greece . . Laurel.
India . . Lotus.
Ireland . • Shamrock.
Italy . . LUy.
Mexico .. Cactus.
Switzerland . . Chrysanthemum
Japan .. Edelweiss.
Scotland . . Thistle.
Militarj’ Cross (Belgium)
Medal for Valour (Italy)
Order of the Patriotic "War
(Soviet Union)
Order of the Rising Sun (Japan)
STATE FLOIiERS
Spain . . Pomegranate.
U. S. A . . Golden rod.
Persia .. Rose.
IVales . . Leek or DaS’odils
Prussia . . Linden.
Canada . . Maple leaf.
Egypt . . Lotus.
Holland . . Tulip.
Australia . . Golden Wattle.
Denmark . . Forget-me-not.
Spain . . Red carnation.
WORLD GAZETTEER
(A BRIEF GUIDE TO THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD)
ABYSSINIA — An empire in East Africa, official name Ethiopia,
The Emperor directly controls the government, though there now is
a Council of Ministers, a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. All
members are appointed by the monarch. The actual form of govern-
ment is thus the personal rule of the Emperor. Population —
15,000,000. Eritrea, a country of E. Africa, a former Italian Colony
was federated with Ethiopia in 1952. Capital — Adis Ababa.
AFGHANISTAN — A mountainous Moslem kingdom lying bet-
ween Pakistan, Iran and Soviet Union. Afganistan runs all the way
from Iran eastward to China and forms a long barrier between
Soviet Union and Pakistan. The Government is constitutional
monarchy. Under the Constitution of Oct. 31, 1931 there is a
Senate of 43 nominated members and a National Council of 171
elected members with a Grand Assembly which is summoned on
important occasions. The administration is entrusted to the Council
of Ministers. The laws of Afghanistan are based on the “Shariat” or
Islamic law and tribal custom. The main routes to Pakistan
passes through the mountains, the chief being Khyber from
Kabul and Bolan from Kandahar. The country is mountainous and
undeveloped. It can be reached only by a few high passes. There are
no railways and navigable rivers. Afganistan’s rough mountains
have prevented the building of railroads. This has discouraged trade
and travel in the country. The country is divided into seven
major provinces. Each province is under a governor. Languages
spoken — Pashtii & Persian. Area : 270,000 square miles. Popula-
tion — 13,000,000. Capital — Kabul.
ALBANIA — A mountainous Baltic republic in southern Europe
bounded by Yugoslavia, Greece and Adriatic Sea, was incorporated
with Italy in 1939 but now a free republic. Under 1946 constitution,
Albania has a typical Soviet Government. Supreme power is vested
in the popularly elected national assembly, to which the Cabinet,
headed by the premier is responsible. Area : 10,029 sq. m. Popula-
tion — 1,250,000. Capital — Tirana.
ANDORRA — Republic of Europe in the Pyrenees mountains
under the joint suzerainty of France and Spanish Bishop of Urgel.
It has enjoyed undisturbed sovereignty since 1278. Area : 191 sq. m.
Pop. 5,231. Capital — Andorra.
ARABIA — A peninsula in south-west Asia inhabited by Arabs,
was a single political unit, now comprises the following States —
Aden Colony (British), Aden Protectorate, Bahrein Islands (Sul-
tanate), Kuwait (Sheikdom), Oman and Masqat (Sultanate), Qatar
(Sheikdom), Saudi Arabia, (Kingdom), Trucial Coast (Sheikdoms),
Y’emen (Kingdom).
86
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Smidi-Arahia — is the most important state of the peninsula
occupying nearly four-fifths of the Arabian Peninsula. It consists
of Nejd, Hejaz and its dependencies. Area ; 927,000 sq. m. Popula-
tion — 6,500,000. Capital — Riyadh.
Sheikdom of Kmvait — is an independent Arab Sheikdom. It
extends along the shore of the Persian Gulf from lTaq_ to Saudi
Arabia. The principality has one of the world’s richest oil reserves.
Capital — Kmuait.
Sultanate of Oman and Masqat — occupies the mountainous
south-eastern part of the peninsula. The State is best known for its
date cultivation. Capital — Mascut.
Qatar — occupies the whole of the Qatar peninsula in the_ Per-
sian Gulf. It is ruled under British protection by a Sheik. Capital —
Doha. ,
Sheikdoms of Trucial Coast — extend along part of the Gulf of
Omah and southern coast of Persian Gulf. It is ruled by seven semi-
independent Sheikhs.
Kingdom of Yemen — is an independent state occupying the south-
western extremity of the peninsula. Capital— SctTum.
Aden — is a British colony and protectorate situated on the
volcanic southern tip of the Arabian peninsula along the Gulf of
Aden. The 20-odd sultans who rule their respective territories m
the protectorate are resnonsible to the British Governor of Aden.
Baherein Islands — ^These islands form an archipelago in the
Persian Gulf and are nominally an independent Sheikdom but are
actually a protectorate of Great Britain, The islands are important
for their oil, pearl, fisheries and strategic position. Area 213 sq. m.
Capital — M anamah.
ARGENTINA — Second largest South American Republic. It is
Federal Union of sixteen provinces and eight territories. The_ cons-
titution is modelled on that of U.S.A. but each province enjoys a
large measure of autonomy. -The executive is in the hands of the
President, who selects his Cabinet. The National Congress consists
of a Senate of 30 members and of a House of Deputies of 149 mem-
bers, ^th 11 non-voting delegates from National Territories. Argen-
tina is regarded as the most important nation in Latin America
besides Brazil. Economically it is the most developed of all : it has
43 p.c. of the foreign trade of South America. 64 p.c. of all South
American railwards and 55 p.c. of all automobiles. Argentina is a
world leader in wheat, corn, flaxseed ; alfalfa grown for feed to sup-
port huge heads of cattle is main crop ; it also leads in beef, mutton,
hides and wool. The language is Spanish. Area : 1,079,965 sq. m.
Pop. — 18,379.000. Capital — Buenos Aires.
AUSTRALIA — is a self-governing member of the British
Commonwealth of Nations and is a federal union of eight states —
Tasmania, Western Australia, Queensland, Northern Territory. South
Australia. New South Wales, Victoria and Australian Capital terri-
tory. TTie government is that of a Federal Commonwealth within
the British Commonwealth of Nations, the executive power being
vested in the Sovereign (through the governor-general), assisted
WORLD GAZETTEER
87
by a Federal Ministry. Australia is primarily an agricultnral coun-
try, one of the world’s greatest producers of wheat and wool, hut
industralisation has been extensive. There is much unique flora, e.g.
giant encal^tus, and fauna, e.g. kangaroo, wallaby and wambat,
platypus, sping anteater, koala bear and many unusual birds. Wool
is Australia’s greatest primary industry which produces 27 p.c. of the
world’s wool and 57 per cent of its marino wool. Australia is also
one of the largest producers of wheat. Area : 3,000,000 sq. m.
Pop. — 8,986,842. Capital — Canherra.
AUSTRIA — is a country of Central Europe. 'The country be-
came a free independent nation on the 15th May, 1955 for the first
time since German troops entered into the country in March 1938.
Austrian State Treaty signed on May 15. 1955 liberated Austria from
seventeen years of foreign occapation, first by the Nazis and then by
the Allies. 'The Treaty reestablished Austria as “a sovereign in-
dependent and democratic state with frontiers of Jan. 1. (1938 before
Hitler seized the country). Austria agreed never to form an economic
or political union with Germany. It is a federal republic comprised
of nine provinces (including Vienna), each of which has its own
elected assembly for the control of regional affairs. TTie federal
parliament consists of two houses. The President of the Republic
is elected by national popular vote for a term of six years. 'The
Government is administered by the Chancellor and his cabinet. Area:
32,388 sq. m. Pop — 6,912,959. Capital — Vienna.
BELGIUiM — ^North-west European Kingdom. Government is
consitutional hereditary monarchy with a bicameral legislatare con-
sisting of the King, the Senate, and the House of Deputies. Bel-
gium is the most densely populated country in Europe. Belgium is
also a great colonial power ; she possesses Belgian Congo in Central
Africa which is one of the world’s largest copper producers, the
greatest producer of radium and also producer of gold and diamond.
'The Belgrian Colonial Empire consists of Belgiam Congo (Africa)
and Ruanda-Urundi (U.N. Trust territory). Total area : 11,755
sq. m. Pop. — 8,757,691. Capital — Brussels.
BHUTAN — Bhutan is a small semi-independent state lying on
the south-east .slope of the Himalayas, bordered on the north by
Tibet and on the east, south and west by the Indian Union. 'The
inhabitants are Mongolians and follow Buddhism. Agriculture is
the chief industry. The country is governed by the hereditary king.
A treaty signed with India in August, 1949 increased India’s subsidy
to Bhutan and placed Bhutan’s foreign affairs under Indian control.
Area : 18,000 sq. m. Pop. — 300,000. Capital — Ptinakha.
BOLIVIA — South American Republic located in the west central
portion of the South America, Bolivia is a republic, electing by
popular vote a president every four years, 927-member Senate
every six years and a 111-member Chamber of Deputies every four
years. The president appoints the 10 members of his cabinet. Area :
416,040 sq. m. Pop. — 3,054,000. Capital — La Paz.
BRAZIL — By far the largest country in South America and
88
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
occupies nearly half of South America. In the world, it ranks after
U.S.S.R., China and Canada. Brazil is a federation of
twenty States, five territories and one federal district. The Presi-
dent is popularly elected for a five-year term. The National Con-
gress is composed of two houses — ^the Senate and Chamber of Depu-
ties. Brazil leads the world in the production of coffee and castor
beans and ranks second in cacao. The coffee crop represents
three-quarters of the world's supply. The language is Portuguese
with many dialects. Area : 3,291,416 sq. m. Pop. — 55,772,000.
Capital — Rio de Janerio.
BULGARIA — Balkan Republic. The constitution of 1947 mo-
delled after that of Soviet Union provides that the unicameral Na-
tional Assembly is the supreme organ of the State. The legislation
has enacted complete state ownership or control of industry, banking,
foreign and internal trade and collectivization of agriculture.^ The
Assembly elects a 15-member presidium, the president of _ which_ is
the nominal chief of state ; governmental administration is carried
on by the Premier and his cabinet who are responsible to the Assem-
bly. Area : 42,848 sq. m. Population — 7,160,000. Capital — Sofia.
BURMA — Burma's independence from Great Britain became
effective on Jan. 4, 1948. A Constituent Assembly was elected
on April 9, 1947 ; and the Constitution adopted on Sept. 24, 1947. The
orientation of the government is toward moderate socialism which
places emphasis on joint government-private enterprise, exploita-
tion of natural resources, government ownership of transport and
utilities, the e.xtension of co-operative enterprises and land
nationalisation. The Constitution provides for a government headed
by the president, who is elected by the two houses of Parliament
meeting in a joint session. The Union Parliament elected for
four-year terms, consists of the Chamber of Deputies and a Chamber
of Nationalities. "With the Burma proper it has four frontier areas
— ;S_han, Kachin, Karen and Karenni States and the Chin Special
Division. Due to continued political unrest Karen State w’as formally
inangurated in June 1954. The principal productions are teakwood,
rice, cotton, maize, tobacco, tin, silver and petroleum. The rubies,
sapphires and jade found in Burma, are unsurpassed in quality. The
Area : 3,845,744 sq. miles. Population — 14,009,429 (1951). Capital—
Rangoon.
CANADA — ^is an independent and Sovereign member of the
British Commonwealth of Nations with the second continuous
land area in the world, stretching across the northern part of the
north American continent. It is a federal union of 10 provinces
whose powers are laid doxm in British North America Act of 1867.
The executive powers rest nominally in the hands of the Governor-
General who represents the English Queen. Actually Governor-
General acts only with the advice of the Prime Minister and
members of the Cabinet. The Parliament has two houses — a
Senate and a House of Commons. Canada is one of the world's
leading sources of wheat, enormously rich in forests ; also ores,
metals, oils and other raw materials are produced in quantities.
WORLD GAZETTEER
89
Canada leads the world in production of newsprints, asbestos, nickel
and platinum. Of special interest is the uranium ore mined in the
northern Canada, one of the only two places so far known in the world
where raw material for atomic energy can be mined easily. Cana-
dian fishing are among the most extensive and prolific in the world.
Area ; 3,845,744 sq. miles ; Population — 14,009,429 (1951). Capital —
Ottawa.
CENTRAL AFRICAN FEDERATION— was established by Act
of the British Parliament in 1953. It affects Northern and Southern
Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Northern Rhodesia and Southern Rhodesia
have a Governor, an executive council and a legislature, Nyasaland
is a protectorate. Under the Constitution of 1953, federation has a
virtual self-governing status and each of the three territories will
retain status in local matters.
CEYLON — The island of Ceylon lies in the Indian Ocean 13 miles
off the southern tip of India at its closest point. It is now a self-
governing Dominion of British Commonwealth from 1948. Under the
new Constitution, Ceylon’s Government is headed by the Crown-ap-
pointed Governor-General, who is advised by a Council of Ministers
headed by a Prime Minister. The bicameral parliament consists of
a House of Representatives and a Senate. The administration of the
island is in the hands of the Cabinet of Ministers who are collectively
responsible to the legislature. Area : 25,332 sq. m. Population —
8,384,000. Capital — Colombo; Flag : dark red ■with yellow border
finials in corners, yellow lion symbol in centre ; two vertical stripes
of green and saffron at pole
CHILE — A democratic State lies on the west coast of South
America. In Chile, the only natural nitrate in the world is found.
So sixty per cent of the world’s iodine is obtained as a by-product of
nitrate processing. World’s second largest copper is Chile, official
language is Spanish. Area : 286,397 sq. m. Population — 6,238,000.
Capital — Santiago .
CHINA — Republic of Asia since 1912. It is second in size and
first in population among the countries in the world. It occupies a
vast area in south-east Asia including China proper, Manchuria,
Mongolia, Tibet and Sinkiang (E. Turkestan etc.) ; most densely
populated country in the world. Soviet-type of government has been
established by the communists in 1949 who control whole of China
except Formosa. The Chinese People’s Republic established in 1949,
has as its primary legislative body the Central People’s Government
Council and as its executive the State Administrative Council. There
are subsidiary bodies dealing with military affairs, justice, finance
etc. Provincial People’s Governments have been set up for the pro-
■vinces. Three religions of China are Confuseanism, Taoism and
Buddhism. China proper : 3,760,339 sq. m. Population — 463,493,418.
Capital — Peking. Two separate governments however continue to
claim sovereigntly over all China. Republic of China under Chiang
Kaishek governs only the island of Formosa, on the other hand
Communist China controls the 18 provinces on the continent. Civil
90
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
war between Republic of China and Peoples’ Republic of China
continue unabated.
C0L03IBIA — South American Republic located in north-west of
South America. Area : 447,536 sq. m. Pop. — 12,657,070. Capital —
Bogota.
COSTA RICA — is the most southern State of Central America.
The Government of Costa Rica is republican, democratic and repr^
sentative. Government functions are exercised through four semi-
independent but interrelated branches : the Executive, the Legisla-
tive (Single Chamber), Judiciary and the Electoral Organisation.
Area : 32,000 sq. m. Pop. — 898,000. Capital — San Jose.
CUBA — The Pearl of Antilles is the largest island in the West
Indies. It is the largest sugar cane producer in the world. Tobacco
ranks second in importance. The Government is by the President,
Senate and House of Representatives. Area : 44,164 sq. m. Pop. —
5,926.000. Capital — Havana.
CU5IBODI.4. — became an independent country in 1955. National
Assembly in September 1955 declared the country’s independence
from France. (Constitutional reform included a parliamentmr gov-
ernment and the vote for women. Population : 3,800,000.
CZECHOSLOVAKI.A. — A central European republic formed in
1918 as one of the succession states of the Austro-Hungurian
Empire, it then comprised Bohemia, Moravia, with .Austrian Silesia,
Slovakia and Ruthenia. Ruthenia was however ceded to Russia in
1945. In 1948, after the establishment of the People’s !^public, the
old provinces were abolished and the countrj* was divided into
19 regions . It has a Soviet type constitution promulgated
on June 8, 1948. There is an unicameral Parliament, the supreme
organ of the State with control over Courts and Civil Service. The
government is headed by the President elected by Parliament for a
seven-year term and the Prime Minister and his cabinet, who are ap-
pointed by the President but are responsible to the Parliament. The
constitution contains guarantees of civil liberties and provides that
the state shall conduct all economic activity in the public interest
on the basis of single economic plan. Czechoslovakia possesses one
of the richest territories in Europe, both in the matter of natural
resources and industrial developments. Area : 49,330 sq. m. Pop. —
12,815,000. Capital — Prague {Praha).
DENMARK — Kingdom of north Europe. The Government is a
hereditary monarchy. The King and Parliament jointly hold legis-
lative power. There is an unicameral Parliament of 179 members.
Danish dairy products are world famous and the country in normal
times exports more butter than any in the world. Area: 16,576 sq. m.
Population — 4,405,000. Capital — Copenhagen.
DOMINKILAN REPUBLIC — The Republic (formerly San Do-
mingo) occupies the eastern two-thirds of the island which Colum-
bus named La Espanola (now Hispaniola) when he discovered it on
his first voyage in 1492, lies east of Cuba between -Atlantic Ocean
and the Caribbean _ Sea. Area : 19,300 sq. m. Pop. — 2,167,000.
Capital — Cuidad Trujillo.
WORLD GAZETTEER
91
EQUADOR — Republic in the Pacific coast of South America :
Equador is the world’s chief source of the supply of balsa, a light
wood. Area : 287,000 sq. m. Population — 3,300,000. Capital — Quito.
EGYPT — An independent Kingdom of N.-E. Africa. It is the
largest and the most influential of Arab States. In Oct. 1951 Egypt
abrogated the 1936 Anglo-Egyptian treaty of alliance due to the
failure of negotiations for the revision of the 1936 treaty because
of the British refusal to recognise Egyptian sovereignty over the
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. The army led by Gen. M. Naguib seized
power on July 23, 1952 and King Parouk abdicated in favour of his
infant son. The monarchy was abolished and republic proclaimed
on June 18, 1953 with Naguib holding the posts of both provisional
president and premier. He relinguished the latter post on April 18,
1954 to Gamal Abdel Nasser, leader of the ruling Military Junta.
An agp-eement was reached with Britain on July 27, 1954 on broad
terms for evacuation of the Suez Canal Zone. A new constitution
is to be drafted during three-year transitional period beginning in
1953. Area : 386,000 sq. m. Pop. — 22,000,000. Capital — Cairo.
EL SALVADOR — is the smallest of the six Central American Re-
publics and the only one without an Atlantic Sea coast. Area : 13,176.
Population — 1,986,000, Capital — San Salvador.
FINLAND — Republic in N.-W. Europe declared an independent
state in 1917 ; fringed by islands and dotted with lakes, the State
was an autonomous Russian State, but proclaimed an independent
state in July 29, 1917 and a republic in 1919. Under the constitution
there is a single Chamber composed of 200 members elected by
universal suffrage. The legislative power is vested in the Chamber
and the president. The highest executive power is held by the
President who is elected for a period of six years. One of the chief
occupations in Finland is lumbering : articles made from wood in-
clude matches, constructional timber, paper and cellulose. The Pre-
sident is chosen for a term of six years. Area : 130,165 sq. m.
Pop.— 4.11,835. Capital — Helsinki.
FORMOSA — Island off the coast of China held by the
Nationalist forces. Area : 13,800 sq. m. Pop. 7,617,753. Capital —
Taipei.
FRANCE — Republic of Western Europe bordering on Spain in
the S.-W. Italy, Switzerland and Germany in the E., Belgium and
Luxemburg in the N.-E., and facing the Mediterranean, Atlantic
Ocean and English Channel on the S., W. and N. resnectively.
The Constitution of the Fourth Republic came into force in Dec. 1946
and vested the Government in the National Assembly elected by the
universal suffrage, and the Council of the Republic, an advisory
body elected by the Commissions and depts. Both are assisted by an
Economic Council. The President of the Republic is elected by both
houses, presides over the Council of Ministers, the Supreme Council of
Justice and the Armed Forces, and nominates the President of
the Council of Ministers at each new legislature. _ The President of
the Council arranges his cabinet and must have his policy approved
before his ministers are appointed.
92
HINDUSTAN YEAK-BOOK
Under the Constitution, the French Union consists of 90 De-
partments of Metropolitan France, seven Overseas Departments and a
number of Overseas Territories, Trust Territories and Associated
States.
GERMANY — After the fall of Germany in the WorId_ War II,
for the purposes of control, Germany was divided in 1945 into four
national occupation zones each headed by a military governor assisted
by appropriate supervisory and operating staff. Efforts to unify
Germany were totally unsuccessful, and the western powers were
unable to agree with U.S.S.R. on any fundamental issue. So on
May 31, 1948 U.S. Britain, France and Benelux countries agreed to
set up a German State comprising the three western zones. The
Federal Republic of Germany came into formal existence on_ Sep-
tember 1, 1949 when Allied High Commission transferred to it the
administration of the U. S., British and French Zones of occupation
of Germany. On May 8, 1949 the German Constituent Assembly at
Bonn approved the constitution for Western Germany.
The Constitution provides for a parliament with two houses.
A special assembly chooses the president for Five Years. The presi-
dent nominates the chancellor subject to the approval of the lower
house. The occupying powers, France, Britain and U.S. restored the
civil status. Sept. 21, 1949. The U.S., Great Britain and France con-
cluded peace contract agreements with Westem Germany in 1952
restoring nearly complete independence and making it a member
of the free European Community. Further protocols signed in Oct.
23, 1954 by Westem Germany and 14 other westem nations gave the
Federal Republic virtual Sovereignty. Following the ratification oi
agreements, the Republic became officially independent on May
5, 1955.
German Democratic Republic comprises Soviet zone of occuji^
tion of Eastern Germanj'. It was proclaimed on Oct. 7, 1949 wim
its seat at Berlin on the basis of a Constitution adopted on May 30,
1949 by a People’s Congress. The Constitution is Soviet in nature.
The Soviet Union proclaimed it a Sovereign republic, March 26, 1954.
Area ; 94,723 sq. m.; Population : 49,516,000 ; Capital — Bonn.
GREAT BRITAIN & NORTHERN IRELAND— The United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland comprising England,
Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland, Island of Man and the Chaniml
Islands lies on the north-west comer of Europe. Parliament is the
legislative governing body for the United fcngdom with certain
powers over the dependent Empire but none o\'er the Dominions. It
consists of two houses — the House of Lords and the House of
Commons. United _ Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy with a
queen and a Parliament. Supreme legislative power is vested in
Parliament. The executive power of the Crown is exercised by the
Cabinet headed by the Prime Minister. Great Britain is second only
to U.S.A. among the industrial nations of the world, hlost im-
portant manufacture is heavy goods such as machinery, tools, bridges
and locomotives. Area : 94,300 sq. m. Population — 51,113,000. Capi-
tal — London.
WORLD GAZETTEER
93
GREECE — is located at Balkan peninsula in south-western
Europe stretching down into Mediterranean Sea. Greece is a cons-
titutional hereditary monarchy. Nominal executive power is vest-
ed in the king but the government is administered by the Council of
Ministers, headed by the Premier who must enjoy the Assembly's
confidence. Area : 51,246 sq. m. Pop. — 8,150,000. Capital — Athens.
GUATEMALA — Republic of Central America. Area : 42,042
sq. m. Pop. — 3,012,000. Capital — Guatemala.
HAITI — It occupies the western third of the island known as
Hispaniola, the second largest of the Creator Antilles lying between
Cuba on the west and Puerto Rico on the east. It is the only
negro republic v;ith western hemesphere. Area : 10,714 sq. m.
Pop. — 3,112,000. Capital — Port-au-Prince.
HONDURAS — ^Republic of Central America. Area : 43,227 sq.
m. Population — 1,533,000. Capital — Tegucigalpa.
HUNGARY — European Republic formed out of Austro-Hun-
gary ; it is abode of the Magyars. The Soviet type of constitu-
tion was adopted by the Parliament on August 18, 1949 which de-
clared Hungary to be a ‘people’s republic’. The supreme organ of
state control was declared to be the Parliament with deputies elect-
ed for 4 years by direct vote. When Parliament is not in session,
power is exercised by the presidium headed by the chairman. Exe-
cutive power is vested in the cabinet headed by the premier. Hun-
gary’s bauxite deposits are considered one of the largest in the world.
Area : 35,902 sq. m. Population — 9,500,000. Capital — Budapest.
ICELAND — Island in the North-Atlantic Ocean, now republic ;
it is close to the Arctic circle in the North Atlantic ; constitutionally,
the president is elected for four years by popular vote. Executive
power of the state resides in the prime minister and his cabinet.
The Althing is composed of two houses. Iceland has no army or
navy. Area : 39,758 Pop. — 152,506. Capital — Reykjavik.
INDIA — ^It is now independent Republic since 1950. The domi-
nion is one of the largest and richest nations in the world. Area :
1,221,889 sq. m. Pop. — 356,891,624. Capital — Ne^v Delhi.
IRISH REPUBLIC — Is now sovereign independent and democra-
tic state from 1949 and the constitution affirms the right of the Irish
nation to choose its own form of government; to determine its rela-
tions with other nations and to develop its life in accordance with its
own genius and traditions. The head of the State is the President
elected by the direct vote for 7 years. The parliament consists of the
Dail elected by the universal suffrage and proportional representa-
tion and the Senate of 60 members. Area ; 26,600, sq. m. Pop. —
2,997,000. Capital — Dublin.
INDONESIA — is a republic of S. E. Asia comprising territory
formerly, known as the Dutch East Indies. Indonesia comprises
about 3,000 islands, the five largest being Java, Sumatra, Western
Borneo, Celebes and Western New Guinea. Indonesia is one of the
richest countries in natural resources. There are vast supplies of
94
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
tin, oil and coal, and sizable deposits of bauxite, manganese, copper,
nickel, gold and silver. Until March 1942, Indonesia was a Nether-
land overseas territory. Following Japanese Military occupation
(1942-45) Indonesian Nationalists proclaimed a republic, Aug. 17,
1954. Pour years intermittent warfare between Netherlands and
Indonesian forces were terminated by agreements signed Nov. 2, 1949
transferring sovereignty. Over all Indonesia except Netherlands
New Guinea to the new Interim Government known as Republic of
the United States of Indonesia. On July, 1950 member states agreed
to form a strongly Centralised Government and accordingly a Unita-
rian state with an amended constitution was proclaimed and its name
was changed Republic of Indonesia. The Netherlands-Indonesia
Union with Netherlands Queen at its head created in 1949 began to
dissolve, Aug. 10, 1954, when new protocols governing future relation-
ship were signed. Legislative power is in the hands of a House of
Representatives numbering about 212. Area : 905,522 sq. m.
Population — 81,100,000. Capital — Jakarta.
IRAN — ICingdom of Western Asia, also known as Persia, Iran
is a constitutional monarchy. Executive power is exercised by a
cabinet headed by the prime minister who is appointed by the Shah
and is responsible to the Majlis (Parliament) which has 136 popu-
larly-elected members. The Shah has power to dissolve the Majlis.
Iranian oil field in the south-west territory at the head of the Persian
Gulf is the richest single field in existence. Area : 628,060 sq. m.
Population — 19,000,000. Capital — Tehran.
ISRAEL — The Jewish State in Palestine was established in 1948
in fulfilment of the aspirations of Zionism and following a decision
of U.N. Assembly on the partition of Palestine between Jews and
Arabs. Israel is a democratic State. It occupies the major portion
of Palestine. It lies on the western edge of Asia bordering on the
Mediterranean Sea. On Nov. 2, 1917, British Government made a
declaration, known as Balfour Declaration which viewed with favour
the establishment in Palestine of a home for the Jewish people.
This principle was incorporated in the mandate to Britain which
came into force in 1923. The British mandate on Palestine ended
at mid-night on May 14, 1948 when the Jewish National Council pro-
claimed a Jewish State of Israel. This led to the war against Israel
by Arab States. But armistice agreement was signed under U.N.
auspices which left Israel as an independent State. The declaration
of independence of the Jewish National Council on May 14, 1948
stated that the new nation would be “based on the precepts of liberty,
justice and peace taught by the Hebrew prophets.” The constitu-
tion provides a republican form of government headed by a President
elected for a 6-year term by the Chamber of Deputies. Legislative
power is vested in the Chamber of Deputies, the members of which
are elected by the vote of all citizens. The government is adminis-
tered by the cabinet, which is headed by the premier and is respon-
sible to the Chamber of Deputies. Area : 8,048 so. m. Ponulation
1,698,000. Capital — Jerusalem.
IRAQ— Arab Kingdom in the Middle East ; formerly known as
WORLD GAZETTEER
95
Mesopotamia ; now one of the states lying between Arabia and Iran ;
created as a result of World War I when under the treaty of Lous-
anne (1923), Turkey renounced the sovereignty over Mesopotamia.
The constitution is a constitutional monarchy, hereditary in the
family of King Faisal with a Chamber of Deputies of 155-members
elected by manhood suffrage and a senate of not more than a quarter
of the total number of Deputies ; the Senators are appointed by the
King. Iraq is one of the great oil-producing countries of the world.
Area : 171,600 sq. m. Population — 5,100,000. Capital — Bagdad.
ITALY — Republic of Europe, stretching from the Alps south-
east into Mediterranean with the islands of Sicily, Sardania, Elba
and 70 smaller ones : under Italy’s nev.r Constitution of 1948 the
state is described as a “democratic republic founded on work’’
The President is elected for seven years by parliament in joint
session with regional delegates. The Cabinet headed by the
premier and nominated by the president, must enjoy the confidence of
parliament which is composed of the Chamber of Deputies popularly
elected for a five-year term and the senate. Italy is ordinarily the
world’s largest producer of mercury ; it is also an important producer
of sulphur. Area : 116,228 sq. m. Population— 46,889,000. Capital
— Rome.
JAPAN — Island Empire of Asia, is situated in the North Pacific
Ocean off the coast of China and Siberia. It was under the control
of Allied powers upto 1951. The new constitution effective on May 3,
1947, made drastic changes in Japan’s political system. The Emperor
retains only ceremonial functions and the executive power is vested
in the cabinet, headed by the premier and collectively responsible to
the Diet. Law-making power is solely vested in the Diet, composed
of two houses — House of Representatives popularly elected and
House of Councillors. A bill of rights guarantees certain basic-
liberties.
On Sept. 8, 1951, 48 nations signed a treaty of peace with Japan
restoring Japan’s sovereign equal status in the community of nations.
On the same day U.S. and Japan signed a bi-lateral treaty under
which U.S. obtained the right to maintain armed forces in post-
treaty Japan. Area : 142,644 sq. m. Population — 88,000,000. Capi-
tal — Tokio.
JORDAN (Hashemite Kingdom of) — ^was formerly known as
Trans-Jordan, is an independent state of western Asia, formerly an
Arab State in the Palestine mandate. Conquered from the Turks by
the British in World War I Jordan was separated from the Palestine
Mandate in 1920 and placed in 1921 under the rule of Abdulla ibn
Hussain. In 1923 Britain recognised Jordan’s independence subject
to the mandate. During World War II, Jordan co-operated com-
pletely with Britain. On March 22, 1946, Britain abolished the
mandate and recognised the full and complete independence of Jordan.
Under the new constitution of 1952, legislative power is vested
in Parliament. Area : 37,500 sq. m. Population — 1,500,000. Capital —
Amman. Jerusalem.
KOREA — East Asiatic country on a peninsula between Manchu-
96
HINDUSTAN 'YEAE-BOOK
ria and Japan. It ■was an independent country in ancient times,
•was placed under Chinese sovereignty in 1627 and •was annexed by
japan in 1910. At the World War 11 in 1945 Russian trops occupied
the northern half of Korea do-wn to the 38th parallel and U.S. troops
occupied the southern half. Russia set up a puppet government
wliich on May 1, 1948 proclaimed jurisdiction over the whole coimtry.
With U.N. supervision, elections were held in South Korea and the
Republic of Korea was declared ■with Seoul as capital, Aug. 15, 1948.
Russia announced on Jan. 1, 1949 that occupation troops had been
•withdra^wn from North Korea. U.S. •withdrew its last troops from
South Korea on June 29, 1949. Early on the morning of Sunday,
June 25, 1950, the Communist North Korean army invaded the
Republic of Korea, attacking south ward across the 38th parallel.
U.S. armed intervention was ordered on June 27, 1950 and on the
same day the U.N. invoked military sanctions against North Korea.
After several months of fighting several hundred thousand Chinese
Communist troops entered the conflict. An armistice was signed at
Panmunjon on July 27, 1953. The armistice contemplated an inter-
national political conference on the status of Korea but negotiations
for arranging broke down. The question was discussed ■without
result at the Geneva Conference on Far Eastern problems (April 26—
June 19, 1954).
South Korea is a republic -with legislative powers vested in a
bicameral parliament and executive power in a popularly elected
President and a cabinet headed by a premier. North Korea is a
typical soviet State under the constitution adopted on Sept. 2, 1948.
U.N. Security Council declared North Korea as aggressor and deman-
ded its ■withdrawal to the 38th Parallel. An armistice was signed
by the United Nations and communist delegates at Panmunjon
on July 27, 1953.
LEBANON — The Republic of Lebanon is in the Levant. It
occupies a strip of land along the Mediterranean coast about 120
miles long and 30 to 35 miles wide. It is formed from the five
former Turkish Empire districts of North Lebanon, Mount Lebanon,
South Lebanon. Beirut and Bekaa and became independent on Sept.
1, 1920. The States were administered under French mandate 1920-
1951. In 1941 France jdelded its powers to the Syrian and Lebanese
governments. Foreign troops were withdra'wn in 1946. Area :
4,000 sq. m. Pop. 1,383,000. Capital Bcimt.
LIBERIA — Independent Negro Republic of West Africa on the
Guinea Coast. It is Africa’s only republic. The government is
modelled after that of the United States. Area : 43,000 sq. m.
Population 2,750,000. Capital — Monrovia.
LIECHTENSTEIN — is an independent Alpine principality bet-
ween Austria and Switzerland. The constitution of 1921 provides
for a legislature of 15 members elected by direct universal suffrage.
Area : 62 sq. m. Pop. — 13,571. Capital — Vaduz.
LIBYA — Ivingdom of North Africa comprising Tripolitania,
Cyrenaica and Fezzan with a Mediterranean coastline of nearly 1000
miles between Egypt and Tunisia and stretching appoximately the
WORLD GAZETTEER
97
same distance south to the Sahara. In 1912 an Italo-Turkish war
left Libya in Italian hands. After the Italian defeat of 1943 Tripoli
and Cyrenaica remained under British and Fezzan under French
military government. In comformity with a resolution of the
General Assembly of U.N. on Nov. 21, 1949, Libya became on Dec. 24,
1951 the first independent state created by the United Nations. Libya
has a federal form of government and a hereditary monarchy.
Government is by a two-chamber parliament. Area : 679,340 sq. m.
Population — 1,340,000. Joint capitals — Tripoli and Bengazi.
LUXEIMBURG, GRAND DUCHY OF— Luxemburg is a European
Grand Duchy situated between Gepnany, Belgium' and France. It
was given its present rank as principality by the Congress of Vienna
in 1815. Area : 999 sq. m. Pop. — 304,000. Capital — Lncxemburg.
JIONGOLLAN PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC— is also known as Outer
Mongolia. In 1916 Mongolia threw off its allegiance to China and by
a treaty was recognised as an autonomous republic. Negotiations
■with Russia after 1917 revolution led to an alliance and by 'treaty,
U.S.S.R. acknowledged the sovereignty of China over Outer Mongolia,
but by the Russian-Chinese treaty of August 25, 1945 China recog-
nised the complete independence of Mongolia. The government of
the republic is strikingly similar to Soviet system. The parliament
is elected by universal suffrage. Area : 1,750,000 sq. m. Pop. about
1,000,000. Capital — Ulan Bator Khoto.
MONACO — ^A tiny independent principality in south of France;
is located on the Mediterranean with land frontiers joining Prance
at every point. It is noted for an exceptionally mild climate and
magnificent scenery. It is the smallest State in the world. Area :
0.6 sq. m. Pop. — 21,202 Capital — Monaco.
MALAYA, FEDERATION OF — ^The Federation of Malaya be-
came effective on Feb. 1, 1948. It consists of four former Federated
Malaya States of Perak, Selangor, Negri Sembilan and Pahang, the
five former Unfederated States and two British settlements of Malcca
and Penang -with Province Wellesly. Singapore became a separate
Crown Colony and Labuan was transferred to North Borneo, April,
1946, when the former Colony of Straits Settlements was dissolved and
the interim Malayan Union formed. Each State in the Federation is
governed by its native rule subject to the advice of the British
Commissioner, except in reli^ous matters. The Central Government
comprises an executive council headed by the High Commissoner and
a federal legislative council. Rubber and tin are the chief products.
The Malaya States are the world’s richest source of tin centering in
the Kinta Valley in the State of Perak supplying about one-third of
the total world’s supply. Its mixed population is approximately
divided : 50% Malaya, 40% Chinese 107o Indians, Pakistani & other.
Area ; 50,690 sq. m. Pop. — 5,506,000. Capital — Kuala Lnimpur.
jMEXICO — A Federal democratic republic of 29 states. Presi-
dent is elected for six years and is ineligible to succeed himself,
governs with a cabinet of his appointed ministers. 'The Federal
Congress has two houses — Chamber of Deputies and Senate.
7
98
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
Each of the 29 States has considerable autonomy with a
popularly elected governor, legislature and local judiciary.
Mexico has a great mineral wealth and produces petroleum,
silver, gold, copper, lead, quicksilver, iron and coal. She is the
world leader for the production of silver, sisal, hemp and chicle for
chewing gum. Area : 760,373 sq. m. Population — 28,000,000. Capital
— Mexico City.
MOROCCO — one of the Barbary States, is situated in the north-
west of African continent. The Empire theoretically is an
absolute monarchy, but the country is divided into three
zones — the French, the Spanish and the International Tangier Zow.
The country is under French protectorate which encompasses the
whole of Morocco from Algerian frontier to the Atlantic Ocean and
from Sahara Desert in the south to the boundary of the Spanish zone
in the north. The Spanish zone is the northern strip. Area : 172,104
sq. m. Pop. — 10,442,000. Capital — Rabat.
NEPAL — A land-locked country lying between India and Tibet.
It occupies slopes of the Himalayas bound in the north by Tibet,
south and west by India and east by Sikkim and Bengal.
Nepal has two great distinctions of containing Mt. Everest, 29,028
(ft.), the tallest mountain peak of the world and some of the toughest
fighting men in the world — Gorkhas. After a revolution in 1950, a
representative government has been established in 1950 with ICing
as constitutional head. The traditional supreme authority of the
Prime Jlinister no longer exists. Area : 54,000 sq. m. Pop. — 8,596,000.
Capital — Katmandu.
NETHERLANDS — Kingdom in North Western Europe. It is a
constitational and hereditary monarchy. Executive power is vested
exclusively in the sovereign while the legislative power vests with
the sovereign and THvo-Chamber legislature. Area : 12,850 sq. m.
Population — 10,666,941. Capital — Amsterdam.
NICARAGUA — is the largest central American Republic lying
between the Caribbean Sea and Pacific Ocean. Area : 57,143 sq. m.
Pop. — ^1,166,000. Capital — Managua.
NEW ZEALAND — A dominion of the British Commonwealth in
the south-west Pacific Ocean. The dominion consists of North Island
and South Island, Stewart Island, Chatham Islands and some small
Pacific Islands. Area ; 105,072 sq. m. Population — 1,961,000. Capital
—Wellington.
NORWAY — Kingdom of north Europe. Norway is a constitu-
tional and hereditary monarchy with succession in direct male line.
The King’s executive power is exercised by a Council of State or
cabinet consisting of the prime minister and at least seven other
councillors. The legislative power is vested in the Storting which
comprises an upper house consisting of one-fourth of the 160 mem-
bers of the Storting the remainder constituting the lower house.
Norway is one of the greatest seafaring nations and its merchant
marine is the third largest in the world. In the North Cape area is
the phenomenon known as midnight sun. The sun does not set from
WORLD GAZETTEER
99
the middle of May until the end of July, nor does it rise above the
horizon approx, from Nov. 18 to Jan. 23. Varicoloured Northern
Lights are visible in winter. Forests cover nearly one-fourth of the
area. They are the principal sources of vrealth, and the paper and
wood pulp industries flourish. Area : 125,064 sq. m. Pop. — 3,309,000.
Capital — Oslo.
PANAMA, REPUBLIC OF — ^It occupies the entire Isthmus of
that name connecting Central and South America and separating the
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. It stretches 450 miles. Panama Canal
is the country’s big economic asset. On Nov. 18, 1903 Panama grant-
the canal zone to the U. S. by treaty. Area : 28,575 sq. m. Pop. —
887,400. Capital — Panama.
PAKISTAN — A. new Muslim State was formed by the partition
of India on August 14, 1947. It is the world’s largest and most in-
fluencial Muslim State. Under its new constitution, it is a
“Islamic Republic” where the laws should be framed according to
Quoranic principles. It is divided into two parts : Western part is
made up of Baluchistan, Sind and N. W. F. Province and the western
part of the Punjab, princely State of Bhawalpur and a few other
small muslim states which has now been formed into one unit
state, while Eastern part consists of the Eastern half of
Bengal and the Sylhet district of Assam. Over half of the
population is concentrated in East Bengal which contains only 16 p.c,
of the total area. Area : 364,737 sq. m. Pop. (1951) — 75,842,165.
Capital — Karachi, Flag — dark green rectangle with white vertical
bar at mast ; white crescent and white heraldic five-pointed star in
centre.
PARAGUAY — South American Republic. Since the adoptation
of the 1940 constitution, Paraguay is a semi-authoritarian republic.
Area : 157,600 sq. m. Pop. — 1,530,000. Capital — Asuncion.
PERU — Maritime republic situated on the Pacific coast of
South America. The Government of Peru consists of a
President and two Vice-Presidents, elected by direct suffrage for a
period of 6 years. Legislative authority is vested in a Congress
composed of a Chamber of Deputies and a Senate. Peru has vast
mineral resources. It ranks fourth in world in silver production
and mines about 25 p.c. of the world’s vanadium. Area : 514,059 sq.
m. Population 9,200,000. Capital — Lima.
PHILIPPINES — ^is the largest island Igroup in the Malaya
Archipelago. It is an archipelago of approximately 7,083 islands
lying about 500 miles off the south-east coast of Asia.
The larcrest islands are Luzon, Mindanao, Samar, Negros, and Pala-
wan. The independence of the Philippines was proclaimed on July
4, 1946 in accordance to the Act passed in the American Congress in
1934. The Philippines have a republican form of Government based
on that of the United States. Executive power is exercised by the
President popularly elected for a 4-year term and assisted by a
Cabinet appointed by him. The popularly elected Congress has two
houses — ^the Senate with 24 members and the House of Representa-
100
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
lives vrifh not more than 120 members. Area : 115,600 sq. m. Pop. —
21,440,000. Capital — Quezon City.
POLAND — ^Independent Republic of central Europe known^ as
Polish People’s Republic. Poland’s new constitution describes
Poland as a people’s republic in which the highest authority is parlia-
mentary body. In most respects it follows the pattern set by the
U.S.S.R. constitution of 1936. The office of the President has been
abolished and the Council of State is the highest organ of the
government. Area : 120,355 sq. m. Population — 26,500,000. Capital —
Warsaw.
PORTUGAL — ^is a Republic of S.-W. Europe occupying the wes-
tern part of the Iberian Peninsula, bounded on the north and east by
Spain and on the south and west by the Atlantic Ocean. Under the
constitution of 1933 revised in 1951, Portugal is a Unitary Corporative
republic. The President is elected popularly for a term of seven
years. It has a National Assembly of 120 members for a term of _4
years. There is also a Corporative Chamber which handles economic
and social matters and advises National Assembly. Area : 35,466
sq. m. Pop.— 86,93,600. Capital — Lisbon.
RUMANIA — ^Independent kingdom of the Balkans ; according
to new Constitution of 1948, Rumania is a “People’s Unitary and In-
dependent State’’. It is socialistic in nature. The highest authority
of the government is Grand National Assembly. Virtually all the
powers formerly vested in the King are exercised by a 19-member
presidium of the National Assembly; certain area has been ceded to
Russia. Area ; -92,000 sq. m. Pop. — ^16,100,000. Capital — Bucharest.
SAN MARINO — ^Independent republic bounded .by Italian
territory, lying some 12 miles S.-W. of Rimini. It claims
to be the oldest state of Europe having founded in the 4th
century and is one of the world’s smallest states. San Marino, the
capital is situated on a spur of the Apennines. Government is by a
council of 60 and the State is under Italian protection. Area : 38
sq. m. Population — 13,500.
SAARLAND — Situated on the North-Eastern frontier of France, '
Saarland is defined in its Constitution of 1947 as “an autonomous
democratic and social country, economically linked to France”. It
has an area of 800 sq. miles and a population of 976,476. Coal mining
and steel production are its principal industries. By the treaty of
Versailles, Saar was placed under the control of the League of Nations
for 16 years and at the end of this period the territory reverted to
Germany following plebiscite. It was occupied by U.S. Army in
March, 1946 and from 1945 to 1947 was incorporated in the French
zone of occupation. In 1947 its independence was recognised. The
land is now governed by an elected legislative assembly of 60 mem-
bers. Area : 800 sq. m. Population — ^976,476. Capital— ^aar6rucfcen.
SOUTH AFRICA — ^The Union of South Africa is a Dominion
within the British Commonwealth of nations. It extends from the
southernmost point of the Africal continent to the course of
Limpopo region. It consists of the following provinces — ^Trans-
WORLD GAZETTEER
101
vaal, Cape of Good Hope, Orange Free State and Natal. The capital
of the Union is Pretoria, though Union’s Legislature meets in Cape
Town. It is the richest gold and diamond producing country in the
world and one of the richest in uranium. Area : 472,733 sq. m.
Pop. — 12,648,575. Capital — Pretoria (seat of administration) and
Cape Toivn (seat of legislature).
SPAIN — Nominal monarchy of S.-W. Europe. It is separated
from Prance by the Pyrcnnees mountain. It was proclaimed a repub-
lic on April 14, 1931. Spain has a dictatorship form of government
under General Franco. Franco is the head of the State, national chief
of the Falange party, prime minister and Caudillo (leader) of the
empire. Practically, the country is ruled by the Cabinet (appointed
by Franco), the National Council of the Falange Party and, to a lesser
extent, the Cortes (Parliament). The principal function of the
Cortes is the planning and formulation of laws without prejudice
to Francos’ veto power. On April 1947, Franco himself
declared Spain a kingdom a^in. He was to remain head of the
State, and upon his death or incapacity, the government and a Coim-
cil of the Realm constituted by the law are to nominate as King
“that person of royal blood who is most qualified by right” subject
to the approval of the Cortes. Area : 196,700 sq. m. Pop. — ^28,638,977.
Capital — Madrid.
SUDAN — It was formerly Anglo-Egyptian Condominium. It
lies between the Sahara and the equatorial forests and extends from
the Atlantic to Ethiopia. After the defeat of Sudan by the British
forces in 1898, a Condominium was established in agreement with
Egypt and reaffirmed in 1936 which provided for the appoint-
ment of a Governor-General by Egypt. In 1951 Egypt abrogated
the 1936 treaty and Egyptian King began to style himself as the
“King of Egypt and Sudan” which was not recognised by Great
Bi'itain and by the majority of Sudanese. A compromise agreement
was signed on Feb. 1953 providing for the liquidation of the dual ad-
ministration and the determination by the Sudanese on either Union
•with Egypt or complete independence. Authority during three-year
transition is vested in the British Governor-General and a five-man
commission. Area : 967,500 sq. m. Pop. 8,764,000. Capital : —
Khartum.
S'W’EDEN — Kingdom of North Europe, Government is a consti-
tutional hereditary monarchy. Executive and judicial authority is
vested in the Eng alone but his resolutions must be taken in the
presence of the Council of State (Cabinet) headed by the Prime
Minister ; the Council is appointed by the Eng, but is responsible
collectively to the Riksdag (Parliament). The Riksdag has _ an
upper chamber elected indirectly by the pro-rincial and municipal
councils for eight years. The lower chamber of 230 members^ is
directly elected by popular vote for four years. Sweden is an im-
portant source of high grade iron ore and also exports lumber, pulp
and paper and is kno'wn for its special technical industries (ball
bearings and electrical appliances). Area ; 173,347 sq. m. Pop. —
7,191,316. Capital — Stockholm.
102
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
SWITZERLAND — is the federal republic of Central Europe
and is a federation of 22 sovereign cantons. Each canton has its
own legislature, executive and judiciary Department with the right
to veto over federal legislation through referendum. The national
authority vests in a parliament of two Chambers — State Council to
which each canton sends two members. The lower house —
National Council has 196 members, one representative to each
24,000 population. The executive power is vested in the Federal
Council of seven members. President serves for one year. On the
basis of international treaties and guarantees, Switzerland is perpe-
tually neutral. Switzerland enters into no military alliance and is
not a member of the U. N. or NATO. It is however a member of
various international commissions of the U.N., W.H.O.; etc. German,
French and Italian are official languages of Switzerland. Dairying
and stock-raising are the principal industries. Area : 15,944 sq. m.
Pop. — 4,925,000. Capital — Bame.
SYRIA — The republic is in the Levent covering portion of the
former Ottoman Empire. It had been under French mandate since
1914-18 war, became an independent republic during 1939-45 war.
The constitution is based on to some extent on that of the U.S. was
passed in 1950. Area : 72,234 sq. m. Pop. — 5,433,784. Capital —
Damascus.
THAILAND — ^Kingdom of South-eastern Asia. It is a consti-
tutional hereditary monarchy. The Constitution provides a uni-
cameral Parliament, half nominated and half elected. The govern-
ment is administered by the Prime Minister and his Cabinet who is
responsible to the Parliament. Area : 200,148 sq. m. Pop. — 19,192,000.
Capital — Bangkok.
TRIESTE — Seaport of the north Adriatic on a like-named gulf.
It was a territory under Italy from 1920. After the 2nd World War,
it was a debateable territory between Italy and Y'ugoslavia. In 1947
the Free Territory of Trieste was constituted as a compromise bet-
ween Italian and Yugoslav claims, under the aegis of the United
Nations Security Council ; as a temporary expedient the territory
was divided into two parts, namely, the 'Italian Zone (A) in the
north (including Trieste City) guarded by U.K. and U.S.A. forces
and the larger but less populous Yugoslav Zone (B) in the south.
TURKEY — ^Republic of Asia and Europe. The European terri-
tory was reduced to the city of Constantinople and a narrow strip
of country around it. It is 9,254 sq. miles including the city of
Istanbul and Adrianopole and is separated form Asia by the Bhos-
phorus and Dardanelles. The Turkey in Asia has 285,246 sq. miles.
The Turkish State is defined as “republican, nationalist, populist,
etatist, secular and revolutionary.” The president is chosen from
the deputies of the National Assembly ; his term of office is identical
with the life of each Assembly. 487 members of the Assembly arc
elected by universal suffrage for a term of four years. Area : 296,503
sq. m. Population — 20,902,628. Capital — Ankara.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA— Federal Republic of North
WORLD GAZETTEER
103
America extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from Canada
to Mexico with outlying areas in Alaska, Puerto Rico, Hawaii, Guam
and other Pacific islands. United States consists of 48 States and
the federal district of Columbia. U.S.A. has a federal government.
The Federal Government is based on the separation of powers — the
President, House of Congress and the Supreme Court being designed
to balance and restrain each other — hence the famous concept of
‘checks and balances’. Each State is self-governing in local matters,
but confides to the Central -Government at Washington the control
of foreign affairs and the army and navy. Police, education, public
health, etc., remain within the scope of the individual states. The
capital is Washington which belongs to no state, being administered
directly by the Federal Government. Executive power is vested in
the President elected by popular vote every four years. He chooses
the members of the Cabinet, who are not (as in England) members
of the legislature. Legislative power is vested in Congp:ess, com-
posed of a two houses ; the Senate with two members from each
State elected to serve six years and the House of Representatives
composed of a number of members varying according to the census
elected for two years. There is adult suffrage. The third main
component of the constitution is the Supreme Court at Washington.
Area ; 3,026,789 sq. m. Pop. — 163,900,000. Capital — WashingtoTi.
U.S.S.R. — ^It is a Federal State of East Europe, North and West
Central Asia. The U.S.S.R. emerged as a political entity under the
leadership of Lenin after the Russian Revolution of 1917 and tho
downfall of the empire of Russia. It was proclaimed formally,
1922, after a confused interim period of civil war, war with Poland
(1920), the first State basing its constitution on Marxist com-
munism. Union of Soviet Socialist Republics is composed of Rus-
sian, Ukrainian, Bylorussian, Azerbaijan, Georgian, Armenian,
Kazak, Turkmenian, Kirghiz, Tadjek, Uzbek, Karelo-Finnish, Eslo-
nian, Latvian, Lithuanian and Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republics.
It is the largest country in the World, stretches across two conti-
nents from the North Pacific Ocean to the Gulf of Finland. Vast
territory of U.S.S.R., one sixth of the earth’s land_ surface, contains
every phase of climate except the distinctly tropical and a varied
topography. The constitution of December 5, 1936 provides that the
highest organ in the U.S.S.R. is the Supreme Soviet consisting of
two equal houses ; that members thereof shall be chosen on the
basis of universal, equal and direct^ suffrage by secret ballot for a
term of 4 years ; that regular sessions of each body shall be held
twice each year ; that there shall be a president of each house ;
that there shall be one Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, which shall
consist of a president, 16 Vice-Presidents (one Vice-President for
each constituent republic of the Union), a secretary and 15 members ;
that the Presidium shall act as an executive and directive body bet-
ween the sessions of the Supreme Soviet.
The U.S.S.R. is probably the richest country in the world in
mineral resources containing deposits of almost evei-y known mineral.
It ranks among the top-producing nations in coal, chromite, iron ore,
petroleum, gold, copper, manganese, and other products. The
104
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
richest mineral region is that of the Ural mountains. Area : 8,707,870
sq. m. Pop. — 213,000,000. Capital — Moscoiv.
URUGUAY" — Smallest republic in South America. Area : 72,172
sq. m. Pop. — 2,526,000. Capital — Montevideo.
VATICAN CITY — The independent sovereign State, created hy
the Treaty of 1929, of which the Pope is the head. It covers 109
acres in the heart of Rome and includes Vatican Palace, the Pope’s
official residence and the basilica and square of St. Peters. The
immediate government of the State of Vatican City is in the hands
of a Governor. He is assisted by a Counsellor General and by a num-
ber of offices. There is no political parties and no parliament.
Area : 109 acres. Pop. — 947.
Y’’ENEZUELA — is the northernmost State of South America.
Area : 352,150 sq. m. Pop. — 5,605,000. Capital — Caracas.
Y^UGOSLAVIA — is a federal republic of S.-E. Europe in the
Balkan peninsula and is a federation comprising the People’s Re-
publics of Serbia, Croatia, Slovakia, Bosnia-Harzagina, Macedonia
and Montenegro. Under the 1953 Constitution, Yugoslavia is a
federal republic. Executive power is vested in the federal execu-
tive council of 30 to 45 members elected by and from the federal
assembly and presided over by the president of the republic who is
elected by and is responsible to the federal assembly. The assembly
consists of (1) a federal council and (2) a council of producers. Area;
95,558 sq. m. Pop. — 16,927,275. Capital — Belgrade.
UNITED KINGDOM — The United Kingdom consisting of Eng-
land, Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland, Isle of Man and the Chan-
nel Islands lies off the north-west comer of Europe. The United
Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy with a King and a
Parliament consisting of two houses : the House of Lords and the
House of Commons. Supreme legislative power is vested in parlia-
ment which holds office for five years unless sooner dissolved. The
executive power of the Crown is exercised by the Cabinet headed by
the prime minister. The Prime Minister, normally the head of the
party commanding a majority in the House of Commons, is appointed
by the Sovereigm with whose consent he in turn appoints the rest of
the Cabinet. All the ministers must be members of one or the other
house of Parliament. Area : 94,279 sq. m. Pop. — 60,033,000. Capital
— London.
VIET-NAM — ^Until 1954 a republic included in the federation of
Indo-China, French Union. It was established in 1946 to include Ton-
kin, Annam and Cochin-China with Saigon as its capital. Area :
127,000 sq. m. Pop. — 27.5 million. Capital — Hanoi.
In World War II, during Japanese occupation (1941-1945), the
Communist Viet Minh league was formed in 1941 and set up a
republic. In 1946 agreement was reached between Viet-Minh and
the French as to the federation of the three States as the Viet Nam
republic and as to their future independence, but differences arose
and suspicions mounted which led the Viet Minh Government
eventually commencing a guerrilla warfare and in 1949 agreement
WORLD GAZETTEER
105
■was signed promising Viet Nam complete independence -within
the French Union. But these negotiations fell through and Viet
Minh regarded themselves as the true government and rebel acti-vity
continued on large scale which resulted in the -virtual defeat of the
French. So in 1954, following a conference at Geneva an armistice
was signed foreshado-wing inter alia the partition of the country
along the 17th parallel of latitute. This resulted all but the coastal
end of Red River delta under Viet Minh control. Pending the hold-
ing of elections, the country lies divided into a northern Democratic
Republic and a southern State of Viet Nam.
SOME OVERALL RESULTS OF FIRST FIVE YEAR PLAN
The following are some of the overall results of the first Five
Year Plan.
National income over the five years (1951-56) has increased by
about 18%.
Foodgrain production has gone up by 20%.
Output of cotton and of major oilseeds has shown an improvement
of 45 and 8% respectively.
Over six million acres of land have been brought under irrigation
through major works.
Another 10 million acres have been irrigated through smaller
irrigation works.
Industrial production has increased steadily. The interim index
(1946-100) of industrial production works out at 161 for 1955 as
compared wth 105 for 1950 and 117 for 1951.
The generation of electric power has gone up from 6575 million
KWH in 1950-51 to 11,000 million KWH in 1955-56.
The output of cement is estimated to have gone up from 2.7
million tons in 1950-51 to 4.3 million tons in 1955-56.
Several important industrial projects in the public sector have
been completed and considerable new investment, especially in the
field of producer goods and capital goods industries, has taken place
in the private sector.
Preliminary work in connection with the installation of three
steel plants and the heavy electrical plant has been completed and
the foundation laid for the larger tasks to be taken in hand during
the second Plan period.
POLITICAL INFORMATION
RULERS OR HEADS OF GOVERNIMENTS OF THE WORLD
Country Ruler Executive Head.
Afghanistan . . Zahir Shah, King. . . Sardar Md. Daud, F.SI.
Arabia-Saudi Abd-el-Aziz, King.
Australia . . Sir William Slim, G. G.’ . . R. G. Menzies, F.M.
Austria .. Dr. T. Koemer, P. .. Dr. Julius Raab, Chan-
cellor.
Argentina . • Edwards Leonerdo P.
Belgium . . Baudouin I, King. . . Achilla Van Acher, P.si.
Burma . . Dr. Ba U, P. - • U. Ba, Swe, p.m.
Bhutan . . Jig-me Wang-chuk.
Brazil . . Juscelino Kubitschek, P. . .
Bulgaria . . V. Chervenkov, P. . . Anton Yugov, p.m.
Canada . . Vincent Massey, G. G. .. Louis St. Laurent, p.m.
Chile . . Carlos Ibanez del Campo P.
China .. Mao Tse Tung, Chairman. Chow En Lai, P.M.
Ceylon .. Sir O. Goonatileke, G. G. S. W. R. D. Bandara-
naike, P.M.
Czechoslovakia A. Zapotocky, P. .. Viliam Sirokj', p.m.
Denmark . . Frederick IX, King. . . Hans Hansen, P.M.
Egypt . . G. A Nasser, P.
Finland . . J. K. Paasikivi, P. . . U. K. Kekkonen, P.M.
France .. P. Rene Coty .. Guy Mollet, p.m.
W. Germany Theodor Heuss, P. . . Dr. K. Adenauer, Chan-
cellor.
E. Germany . . W. Pieck, P. . . O. Grotewohl, p.m.
Ethiopia . . Haile Selassie I
Gt. Britain . . Elizabeth II, Q. . . Anthony Eden, P.M.
Greece . . Paul I. King. . . C. Karamanlis, P.JI.
Hungary . . Istvan Dobi, P. . . J. Kadar, P..M.
Iran (Persia) Mohammed Raza Pahlevi Hussein Ala, P.M.
India .. Rajendra Prasad, P. .. J. L. Nehru, P.M._
Indonesia . . Dr. A. Soekamo, P. . . Ali Sastroamidjojo, p.m.
Iraq . . Faisal II, King. . . Nuri es-Said, p.m.
Italy . . Giovanni Gronchi, P. . . Antonio Segni, P.M.
Irish Republic Sean T. I’Kelly, P. . . J. A. Costello, P.M.
Israel . . Issac Ben-Zevi, P. . . D. Ben Gurion, P.M.
Japan . . Hirohito, Emperor. . . Ichiro Hatoyama P.M.
Jordan . . King Hussain I . . Samir el-Rifai. p.m.
Korea (South) Lee Bum Suk, P. . . Dr. S. Rhee, p.m.
Korea (North) Kim Dn-bong, P. . . Kim II Sung, p.m.
Luxemburg . . Charlotte, Grand Duchess. Joseph Bech, P.M.
Liberia . . W. V. Tubman, P.
Mexico . . Adolfo R. Cortines, P. . .
POLITICAL INFORMATION
107
Country Ruler Executive Head.
Nepal . . Mahendra Bir Bikram. Tanka Prasad f.m.
Netherlands Juliana, Queen. .. William Drees, p.m.
Norway .. Haakon 'WI, King. .. Einar Gerhardsen, P.M.
Pakistan . . Iskandar Mirza, G. G. .. H. S. Shurawardy, P.M.
Peru . . Manuel A. Odira, p.m.
Philippine Is. R. Magsaysay, P.
Portugal F. Craveiro Lopes, P. .. Dr. A. 0. Salazar, p.m.
Poland .. A. Zawadski, P. .. J. Cyrankiewiez, p.m.
Saudi Arabia King Saud
South Africa Dr. E. G. Jansen, G. G. ., Mr. Strydom.
Spain .. Genl. Franco, Regent. . ..
Sweden . . Gustaf VI, King. .. T. F. Erlander, p.m.
Switzerland . . Max Petitpierre, P.
Syria . . Shukri al-Kuwalty, P._ . . Said Ghazzi, p.m.
Thailand . . Phumibol Aduldet, King. L. P. Songgp-am, p.m.
Turkey . . Celal Bayar, P. . . Adanan Menderes, p.m.
U.S.S.R. . . Marshal Voroshilov, P, . . Marshal Bulganin, P.M.
United States D. Eisenhower, P.
Vatican City Pius XII, Pope
Yugoslavia . . Josip Boriz Tito.
Sudan . . Ismail Azahari, p.m. .
PRESIDENTS OF THE U.S.
Name Politics Name Politics
1789-1797 G. Washington Fed. 1869-1877 Ulyssess Grant Rep.
1797-1801 John Adams Fed. 1877-1881 R. B. Hayes Rep.
1801-1809 Thomas JofFerson Rep. 1881-1881 James Garfield Rep.
1809-1817 James Madison Rep. 1881-1885 Chester A.
1817-1825 James Monroe Rep. Arthur Rep.
1825-1829 J. Quincy Adam Rep. 1885-1889 G. Cleveland Dem.
1829-1837 Andrew Jackson Dem. 1889-1893 B. Harrison Rep.
1837-1841 Martin Van 1893-1897 G. Cleveland Dem.
Euren Dem. 1897-1901 W. McKinley Rep.
1841-1841 W. H. Harrison Whig. 1901-1909 T. Roosevelt. Rep.
1841-1845 John Tayler Whig. 1909-1913 William H. Taft Rep.
1845-1849 J. Knox Polk Dem. 1913-1921 W. WJlson Dem.
1849- 1850 Zachary Taylor Whig. 1921-1923 W. G. Harding Rep.
1850- 1853 M. Fillmore Whig. 1923-1929 Calvin Coolidge Rep.
1853-1857 Franklin Pierce Dem. 1929-1933 H. C. Hoover Rep.
1857-1861 J. Buchanan Dem. 1933-1945 F. D. Roosevelt Dem.
1861-1865 A. Lincoln Rep. 1945-1953 H. S. Truman Dem.
1865-1869 Andrew Johnson Rep. 1953 D. D. Eisenhower Rep.
BRITISH PRIME MINISTERS
Sir R. Walpole (Whig) 1721 Duke of Devonshire (Whig) 1756
Earl of Wilmington (Whig) 1742 Duke of Newcastle (Whig) 1757
Henry Pelham (V^ig) 1743 Earl of Bute (Tory) 1762
Duke of Newcastle (Whig) 1754 George Grenville (Whig) 1763
108
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Lord Rockingham (Whig) 1765 Earl of Derby (Con) 1866
Duke of Grafton (Whig) 1766 B. Disraeli (Con) 1868
Lord North (Whig) 1770 W. E. Gladstone (Lib) 1868
Lord Rockingham (Whig) 1782 B. Disraeli (Con) 1874
Earl of Shelburne (Whig) 1782 W. E. Gladstone (Lib) 1880
Duke of Portland (Coal) 1782 M’quess of Salisbury (Con) 1885
William Pitt (Tory) 1783 W. E. Gladstone (Lib) 1886
Henry Addin^on (Tory) 1801 M’quess of Salisbury (Con) 1886
William Pitt (Tory) 1804 W. E. Gladstone (Lib) 1892
Lord Grenville ("V^ig) 1806 Earl of Rosebery (Lib) 1894
Duke of Portland (Tory) 1807 hi’quess of Salisbury (Con) 1895
Spencer Percival (Tory) 1809 Earl Balfour (Con) 1902
Lord Liverpool (Tory) 1812 Sir H. Campbell-Banner-
George Canning (Tory) 1827 man (Lib) 1905
Lord Goderich (Tory) 1827 H. H. Asquith (Lib) 1908
Duke of Wellin^on (Tory) 1828 H. H. Asquith (Coal) 1915
Earl Grey (Whig) 1830 D. L. George (Coal) 1916
Viscount Blelboume (Whig) 1834 A. Bonar Law (Con) 1922
Sir Robert Peel (Con) 1834 Stanley Baldwin (Con) 1923
Visct. Blelboume (Whig) 1835 J- R. McDonald (Nat.) 1924
Sir Robert Peel (Con) 1841 Stanley Baldwin (Nat.) 1924
Earl Russell (Lib) 1846 J. R. BIcDonald (Nat.) 1929
Earl of Derby (Con) 1852 J. R. BIcDonald (Coal) 1931
Lord Aberdeen (Coal) 1852 Stanley Baldwin (Coal) 1935
Viscount Palmerston (Lib) 1855 N. Chamberlain (Coal) 1937
Earl of Derby (Con) 1858 Winston Churchill (Coal) 1940
Visct., Palmerston (Lib) 1859 C. R. Attlee (Lab) 1945
Lord Russell (Lib) 1865 W. S. Churchill (Con.) 1951
Anthony Eden (Con.) 1955
SALARIES OF THE HEADS OF GOVERNBIENTS
President of U.S.A. . . . . $ 100,000 per year*
British Prime Minister . . £ 10,000 per year
President of the Indian Union . . Rs, 10,000 per monthf
Prime Blinister of Japan . . . . 110,000 yen per months
RULERS OF FRANCE SINCE WORLD WAR II
{Fourth Republic)
Vichy Government Fourth Republic
H. P. Petain . . 1940-44 Vincent Auriol . . 1947-54
Rene Coty . . 1964-
Provisional Government
Charles de Gaulle . . 1944-46
Felix Gouin . . 1946
Georges Bidault . . 1946-47
*P7tts taxable $50,000 for expenses and a non-taxable sum (not
exceeding $40,000 a year) for travelling and official entertainment
expenses.
I With emoluments etc.
t Exclusive of allowances.
POLITICAL INFORMATION
109
RULERS OF GERMANY SINCE WORLD WAR I
Fourth Reich Federal Republic of Germany
F. Ebert (President) 1919-25 (Western)
Paul Van Hindenburg' Theodor Heuss (President) 1949-
(President) . . 1925-34 Democratic Republic of Germany
Adolf Hitler (Fuhrer) 1934-46 (Eastern)
Wilhelm Pieck (President) 1949-
RULERS OF U.S.S.R.
Nikolai Lenin . . 1917-24 Georgi M. Malenkov . . 1953-64
Joseph Stalin . . 1924-63 Nikolai Bulganin . . 1954-
POLITICAL ASSASSINATIONS
1865 Abraham Lincoln, President
U.S.A., April 14.
1872 Earl of Mayo, Governor-
General of India.
1876 Abdul Aziz, Sultan of
Turkey, June 4.
1881 Alexander of Russia and
President Garfield, U.S.A,
1894 Marie F, Sadi-Camot, Pre-
sident of France, June 24.
1896 Nasr-ed-Din, Shah of
Persia.
1894 President Carnot of France,
1898 Empress Elizabeth of Aus-
tria, Sept. 10.
1900 Humbert of Italy.
1901 President McKinley, U.S.A.,
September 6.
1903 King Alexander and
his •w^e Draga of Serbia.
1905 Grand Duke Sergius of
Russia.
1908 King Carlos aud Crown
Prince of Portugal.
1909 Prince Ito of Japan.
1911 Stolypin, Premier of
Russia, 14th Sept,
1912 Jose Canalojas, Premier of
Spain.
1913 King George I of Greece.
1914 Archduke Francis Ferdi-
nand of Austria & his wife
1918 Czar Nicholas II and fami-
ly, July 31 ; President Paes
of Portugal.
1919 Amir Habibullah of Afgha-
nistan.
1921 Dato, Premier of Spain ;
Ta Kashi Hara, Japanese
Premier.
1922 J. Narutowicz, 1st Presi-
dent of Poland, Dec. 16 ;
Michael Collins, Irish Free
State Premier.
1928 Ex-President Gen. Alvaro
Obregon of Mexico.
1930 Premier Hamaguchi of
Japan.
1932 President Doumer of
France ; Ki Inukai, Japa-
nese Premier, May 31.
1933 Emir Faisal, King of Iraq,
Sept. 9 ; Ion Duea, Ruma-
nian Premier, Dec. 24 ;
King Nadir Shah of Af-
ghanistan.
1934 Austrian Chancellor Dr.
Dollfuss ; King Alexander
I of Yugoslavia ; M. Bar-
thow, French Foreign Mi-
1935 Huey P. Long, U. S. Se-
nator, September 10.
1936 K. Takahasi, Finance Mi-
nister, Admiral Saito, Ad-
miral Suzuki, Japan.
1937 General Baqir Sidqi, Dic-
tator of Iraq, August 12.
1938 E. Von Rath of German
Embassy, Paris.
1939 Rumanian Premier M.
Calinescan.
1940 Leon Trotsky, Exiled Rus-
sian leader, 21st August.
110
HmDUSTAN TEAK-BOOK
Political Assassinations — {Concld.).
1942 Hydricli, German Protec-
tor of Bohemia-Moravia ;
Admiral Darlan of France.
1945 Mehar Pasha, Premier of
Egypt, February 24.
1946 Aoianda Slahidol, King of
Siam, July 9. _
1947 Gen. Atmg San, Tice-Pre-
sident of Burma and five
Cabinet Ministers.
1948 Mahatma Gandhi, Jan. 30
1948 Count F. Bemadotte, U.N.
mediator, Sept. 17 ; Premier
Nokrash 3 ' Pasha of Egypt.
1949 Syrian President Hosni
Ziam, Aug. 14 ; Abdul Hus-
sain, Ex-Persian Prime
Minister, Nov. 4.
1951 General Ali Eazmara,
Premier of Iran, Mar. 7 ;
King Abdulla of Jordan,
Jiily ; Liaquat Ali Khan,
Premier of Pakistan, Octo-
ber 16.
1955 President Antonio Kemon
of Panama.
FAMOUS ABDICATIONS
B.C. A-D.
Sulla, Homan Dictator 79 Wilhelm II (Germany) 1918
A.D. Karl (.Axistria) " 1918
Deocletian (Roman Emp.) 305 Muhammad IT (Turkey) 1922
Edward n (England) 1327 George 11 (Greece) 1924
Richard 11 (England) 1399 Amanulla (Afghanistan) 1929
Charles V (Germany) 1555 Alfonso (Spain) 1931
ilary Queen of Scots 1567 Prajabar dhak (Thailand) 1935
Christina (Sweden) 1654 Edward Vlil (England) 1936
James 11 (England) 1688 Zog I (Albania) 1939
Charles IV (Spain) 1808 Carol 11 (Rumania) 1940
Nepoleon I (France) 1814 Reza Shah Pelavi (Iran) 1941
Charlesx (France) 1830 Victor Emmanuel III
Louis Philippe (France) 1848 (Italy) 1946
Isabella I (Spain) 1870 Umberto (Italy) 1946
Abdul Hamid H (Turkey) 1909 Simeon (Bulgaria) 1945
Manoel (Portugal) 1910 Michael (Rumania) 1947
Pn-Yi (China) 1912 Wilhelmina (Netherlands) 1948
Nicholas 11 (Russia) 1917 Leopold HI (Belgium) 1951
Constantine (Greece) Faruk T (Egypt) 1952
1917 & 1922 Talal (Jordan) 1952
Ferdinand I (Bulgaria) 1918
FL-AGS OF COUNTRIES
Afghanistan — ^Three vertical Belgium — ^Three vertical bands,
bars, black, red and green ; black, yelow, red.
design in centre (red) bar Brarif— Green with 21 white
composed of a moso.ue endors- stars forming Southern Cross
ed by a crescent formed of on blue circle superimposed on
two ears of wheat joined at gold diamond in centre,
the bottom.
POLITICAL INFORMATION
111
Flags of Countries — (Concld.).
Bunna — Red with dark blue can-
ton bearing a large white five-
pointed star surrounded by 5
smaller stars of like pattern
and colour.
Ceylon — Dark red with yellow
border and finials in comers,
yellow lion symbol in centre,
two vertical stripes of green
and saffron at pole.
Chili — ^White and red horizontal
bars, with white star in blue
canton.
Denmark — Red with white cross.
Egypt — ^White crescent and three
five-pointed stars on green
field.
Etheopia — Three horizontal
bands ; green, yellow, red with
lion in yellow bar.
Finland — White with blue cross.
France — ^The ‘Tricolour’, three
vertical bands, blue, white, red
(blue next to flagstaff).
Greece — Navy blue ground quar-
tered by white cross.
Hungary — ^Horizontal bands, red->.
white-green, with coat of arms
in cen&e.
India — Three horizontal strips,
saffron, white and dark green,
with 24 spoke wheel of Asoka
in centre of w'hite band.
Indonesia — ^Two horizontal bands.
Red and White.
Iran — Three horizontal bars,
fp-een-white-red with golden
lion insignia in white portion.
Iraq — Black-white-green horizon-
tal bars ; vertical red trapi-
zoid near hoist, containing two
white stars.
Ireland — Vertical bars, green-
white-orange.
Italy — Three vertical bands,
dark green-white-red.
Israel — White, with two horizon-
tal blue stripes, the Shield of
David in the centre.
Japan — White charged with ris-
ing sun (red).
Mexico — Three vertical bars,
green-white-red, with eagle
and cactus emblem on white.
Netherlands — ^Three horizontal
bands, red-white-blue.
Norway — Red with white bor-
dered blue cross.
Pakistan — ^Dark green rectangle
with white vertical bar at
mast ; white crescent and
white heraldic five-pointed
star in centre.
Peru — Three vertical bars, red-
white-red, with coat of arms
on white.
Philippines — Blue and red hori-
zontal bars ; white canton with
gold sun, three gold stars.
Poland — Two horizontal bars,
white and red.
Portugal — Green and red verti-
cal bars with armillary sphere
and shield in centre.
Spain — Three equal horizontal
bands (red, yellow & red) with
coat of arms in centre bands.
Switzerland — White cross on red
ground.
Sweden — Ejrtended yellow cross
on medium blue field.
Thailand — Five horizontal bands,
red, white, dark blue, white
and red (the blue band twice
the width of the others).
Turkey — ^White crescent and
white five pointed star on red
field.
V:S.S.R . — Red ^ound with gold
hammer and sickle below five
pointed gold star in upper
comer nearest staff.
United Kingdom — Union _ Jack
(blue ground with superimpos-
ed crosses of St. George, St.
Andrew and St. Patrick in red
and white).
112
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
U.S.A . — ^Thirteen stripes and 48
stars.
OTHER
NATO flags — is navy blue with
white ensign.
Red Crescent flag — with a white
field is a flag of the Geneva
Convention. It is used in
place of Red Cross flag in all
Muslim countries except Iran.
Red Cross flag — is the most
widely used flag of the Geneva
Convention. It has Red Cross
against white background.
Yugoslavia — T h r e e horizontal
bars, blue, white, red with red
star in centre.
FLAGS
Red Lion Flag — is the ' flag of
the Geneva Convention in Iran.
Flag has a white field.
United Nations — ^White U.N. em-
blem (global map projected
from the North Pole and em-
braced in twin olive branches)
centred on a rectangular blue
banner.
NATIONAL DAY
Afghanistan — May 27 (Indepen-
dence Day).
Argantina—^vily, 9 (Proclama-
tion of Independence (1816).
Australia — Jan. 26 (Australia
Day).
Brazil — Sept. 7 (Proclamation
of Independence, 1822).
Burma — Jan. 4 (Independence
Day).
Belgium — July 21.
Canada — July 1 (Confederation
Day).
Ceylon — Feb. 4 (Independence
Day).
China — Oct. 1 (Proclamation of
Chinese Republic, 1949).
Egypt — ^Nov. 14 (Anniversary of
the Battle for Independence,
1922).
France — July 14 (Taking of the
Bastille, 1789).
Finland — Dec. 6 (Proclamation
of Independence, 1917).
India — ^15th August (Indepen-
dence Day).
Indonesia — August 17 (Indepen-
dence Day).
Ireland — March 17 (National
Day).
•Israel — April 27 (Independence
Day).
Italy — June (Founding of the
Italian Republic).
Japan — ^April 29 (Birthday of
the Emperor).
Mexico — Sept. 16 (Proclamation
of Independence, 1820).
Nepo(— Dussera Day.
Netherlands — April 30 (Queen’s
birthday).
Norway — May 17 (Constitution
Day).
Pakistan — ^August 14 (Pakistan
Day).
Peru — July 28.
Philippines — July 4 (National
Day).
Poland — July 22 (National Day).
Switzerland — ^August 1 (found-
ing of Confederation).
Thailand — June 24 (National
Day).
Turkey — Oct. 29 (Declaration of
the Republic).
U.S.A . — July 4 (Independence
Day).
U.S.S.R . — Nov 7 (National Day
of Soviet People, October So-
cialist Revolution in Russia,
1917).
U. K. — Queen’s ofiBcial birth-
day.
POLITICAL INFORMATION
113
ECAFE
ECE
ECO
FAO
GATT
ICEF
ICAO
ILO
IMF
IRO
ITU
NATO
NRA
MEDO
OEEG
POLITICAL ABBREVIATIONS
Economic Commis-
sion for Asia and
Far East.
. . Economic Council for
Europe.
. . European Coal Orga-
nisation.
. . Pood & Agricultural
Organisation.
.. General Agreement
on Trade and Tariff.
. . International Child-
ren’s Emergency
Fund.
. . International Civil
Aviation Organisa-
tion.
International Labour
Organisation;
.. International Mone-
tory Fund.
. . International Refu-
gee Organisation.
. . International Tele-
communication Union.
. . North Atlantic Trea-
ty Organisation.
. , National Recovery
Administration.
.. Middle-East Defence
Organisation.
.. Organisation for Eu-
ropean Economic
Co-operation (Mar-
shall Aid).
SHAPE
SEATO
SEADO
UNESCO
UNICEF
UNRRA
WHO .
WMO .
CARE .
UNCAFE
HNCIP .
Supreme Head-quar-
ters of Allied Pow-
ers, Europe.
South-East Asia
Collective Treaty
Organisation.
South East Asia De-
fence Organisation.
United Nations Edu-
cational, Scientific
and Cultural Orga-
nisation.
United Nations In-
ternational Child-
ren’s Emergency
Fund.
United Nations Re-
lief and Rehabilita-
tion Administration.
World Health Orga-
^ nisation.
World Meteorological
Organisation.
Co-operative for Am-
erican Remittances
Everywhere.
United Nations Com-
mission for Asia and
Far East.
United Nations Com-
mission on India &
Pakistan (Kashmir).
NAMES AND COLOURS OF FLAGS
Union Jack — ^British National
Flag.
Old Glory — Flag of U.S.A.
Flag of Truce — ^WTiite Flag.
Flag of Distress — Flown upside
do^vn.
Red Flag — Once a signal for
battle, now name given to
Communist and Soviet Russian
flags.
Bed Cross Flag — Same as Swiss
flag but with colours reversed.
Yelloto Flag — ^Flown on a ship
with persons suffering from
contagious or infectious
disease.
8
114
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
NATIONAL
Canada — ^The maple leaf forver.
U.S.— Star-spangled banner.
England — God Save the King or
Queen.
France — La Marseillaise.
Greece — Hall, oh, hail liberty.
ANTHEMS
Soviet Union — ^Hymn of the So-
viet Union.
Sweden — Song of the North.
Japan — Kimigayo.
India — Janagana-mana A d h i -
nayaka and Bande Mataram.
POLITICAL PARTIES AND GROUPS
Parties in U.S.A. — ^There are no fundamental differences between
two major political parties of the United States — the Republican
and the Democratic. Strictly speaking two parties can not be exactly
classified under the left and right pattern and there are conservative
and as well as progressive Republicans as there are conservative and
progressive Democrats. Republican Party is traditionally the high-
tariff party strong in the Northern and Central States. In foreign
policy the party wants honourable and just peace as the supreme
goal. In domestic policy, its objectives are a balanced budget, a
reduced national debt, an economical administration and a cut in
taxes. Democratic Party is. traditionally the low-tarff party,
strongest in the Southern States. In foreign policy it declared that
peace with • honour was the greatest goal. It reaffirms Wilsonian
principle of the, right of national self-determination, supports expan-
sion of world trade.
Arab League — ^An association of Arab States formed in 22nd
March, 1945. Its object is to maintain Arab solidarity. ^ The League
consists of Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Saudi-Arabia, Syria, Lebanon,
Yemen and Libya. Provision was made for admission of the Arab
portion of Palestine upon achievement of independence.
Arab Union — formed shortly after the League, is composed of
public leaders of the Arab world and is intended to rally" the people
to unity and to insure handling of essential Arab problems.
Kuomintang — The Chinese Nationalist Party formed originally
by the followers of Sun-Yet-Sen in 1905. The party aims at the
establishment of a modem, democratic, national- state in China. It
stands for national unity, territorial integrity and a strong central
government. It insists on full sovereignty of China and the aboli-
tion of any unequal treaties. The party has now being driven out
from the mainland of China by the communists and is now confined
to the Island of Formosa.
Centre Parties — Parties which are more conservative than left-
wing parties and more progressive than right-'wing parties.
Cominform — An organisation of the chief European communist
parties formed at Belgrade in October 1947 to co-ordinate the acti-
vities of the communist patties on the basis of mutual agreement.
Conservative Party (England) — One of the chief political parties
of England. It is the successor of Tory Party of the 18th and 19th
centuries. It is a party of the right, in favour of existing social and
economic system and is opposed to socialism. Its policy is directed
POLITICAL INFORMATION
115
at the maintenance of the Empire, at the development of home agri-
culture and industry and at the safe-guarding of private property.
The external policy of the party is traditionally nationa.ist and
imperialist. Conservative party is opposed to further nationalisa-
tion, and advocates where practicable, restoration of free enterprise.
Revolutionary Communist Party — A minor group professing
Trotskyism existing in almost all countries. They are left-wing
communists more radical and revolutionary than Stalinist, official
communists with whom they are in conflict.
Falangists — The Spanish Fascist Party led by General Franco.
I. L. P. — Independent Labour Party in England — a small semi-
radical group in British Labour with a Marxist programme — stands
between Labour Party and Communists.
Communist Party — is the world organisation of Marxist Socia-
lists which once operated through branch national parties very loose-
ly affiliated to the Communist International or “Comintern’, now
abolished by the order of Stalin. The ‘International’ has again been
revived under the name of ‘Cominform’ which is said to be the com-
mon information Bureau of Communist Parties of nine countries of
Europe.
Fianna Fail — De Valera’s radical Nationalist party in Ireland.
Labour Party (England) — It is the British Socialist Party com-
posed of Trade Unions, Socialists and Co-operative Societies which
came into official existence in 1908. It aims bringing about, by legisla-
tion, changes which will benefit the poorer classes. Nationalization of
basic industries and public utilities are main programme of the party.
The party’s policy^ is not based on Marxism — instead it is derived
from the ethical idealism of the labour, co-operative and radical
movements and the practical rationalism of Fabianism.
French Parties' — (1) Mouement Republican Populaire (M.R.P.)
is a bulkwork against communism and its programme has been
moderately leftist in character and at the same time it contains strong
catholic elements. The party stands for limited nationalisation,
collective bargaining, full employment and development of exports.
(2) Radical Socialist Party is a left centre party. The party
favours constitutional reform and better distribution of taxes and
reform of social security. (3) Independent Republicans solidly
devoted to defence of free enterprise. (4) Socialist Party.
Liberal Party — Progressive Party of England, stands for free
trade, was known as Whig Party in the l_8th and 19th centuries, once
a great political force, but now an insignificant party.
Anti-Fascist People’s Freedom League, Burma (A.F.P.F.L.) —
is the national organisation of the Burmese people started by its pre-
sident late General Aung San who organised Burmese insurrection
against Japan in early 1945.
Popular Front — Political Party in different countries composed
of communists, socialists and other democratic parties against
Fascism and Nazism.
Egyptian Parties — The nationalist party of Egypt Wafd, esta-
blished in 1919 by Zaghlul Pasha, the great Egyptian nationalist.
1927 — the Saadist Party in 1938 and the Kotla (Ind. Wafdist bloc).
116
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Two factions split off from the Wafd after the death of Zaghlul in
in 1945. All Egyptian parties were nationalists in the sense that
they wanted to rid the country of the British influence. Moslem
Brotherhood — It has always claimed not to be a political party but
rather a national movement seeking to reform Egyptian life on the
basis of ‘Islamic principles'. It was suppressed some times.
INDIAN POLITICAL PARTIES
Indian National Congress — ^The object of the Indian National
Congress as adopted in 1948 is now “the well-being and advancement
of the people of India and the establishment in India by peaceful and
legitimate means of a Co-operative Commonwealth based on equality
of opportunity and of political, economic and social rights and aiming
at world peace and fellowship.’’ The Congress advocates a democra-
tic secular Government with a welfare State as a goal. It endeavours
to maintain a strictly independent position in world affairs.
Communist Party of India — Organised in its present form in 1934.
The party moulds its policy with reference to the policy of Russia
in international affairs, rather than according to the conditions ob-
taining in India. They look to Russia for guidance and inspiration
and follow orthodox international communist line. The party’s
aim is “the organisation of the toiling masses in the struggle
for the victorious anti-imperialist and agrarian revolution
for complete national independence, for the establishment of a
people’s democratic state led by the working class, for the realisa-
tion of the dictatorship of the proletariat, and the building up of
socialism according to the teachings of Marxism and Leninism.”
Proja Socialist Party — ^Formed by the fusion of the Socialist
Party and the Kisan Mazdoor Proja Partyl Party declares as its
objective the establishment of a democratic socialist society in India.
Forward Bloc — Came into existence in 1938 when Subhas
Bose sought to rally leftists against the Congress orthodoxy. It
favours a programme of direct action and repudiates all compromise.
The party’s objective now is the establishment of Socialist State
in India with complete severence of relations from the British
Commonwealth.
Forward Bloc (Marxist) — This is a group which has severed its
connection with the parent body and has formed a new party on
January 23, 1950. The Desh Sevak Party of Punjab, merged into it.
Bharat Sevak Samaj — ^New national organisation brought into
existence as a result of Government intiative. It is a scheme evolved
to rally all patriots for the task of quickly building up economic
strength of the country promoting the social well-being of the
community and mitigating privations and hardship . of its less-
favoured sections. It is not a political organisation. It welcomes
into its fold men of all thoughts save those who believe in destroying
the present order of things by, violent methods and those who want
to perpetuate the present day social injustice by believing in commu-
nal and sectarian idealism.
National Liberal Federation — was formed in 1908 when ■ the
POLITICAL INFORMATION
117
moderates broke away from the Congress and formed a separate
party. It advocated gradual progress through peaceful and consti-
tutional means as opposed to the revolutionary creed and policy of
the Congress. Their policy is very ‘moderate’ that it has never
found support of the Indian masses. It represents a doctrine which
has no place in a dyanamic India. The Liberals are opposed to direct
action of any sort. They are wedded to constitutional forms of agi-
tation whatever they may mean.
Scheduled Caste Federation — ^Party was established by Dr.
Ambedkar. It has no political or economic platform. It had cen-
tred all its agitation for demanding extraordinary privileges. After
partition it has changed its outlook.
Hindu Mahasabha — The aim of the Mahasabha is the protection
and promotion of all that contribute to the advancement, strength
and glory of Hindu Rashtra, Hindu culture and Hindu polity, and
as a means to that end, to achieve Hindu Raj and re-establish the
integrity of the State of Bharat by constitutional means.
Peasants and Workers Party — ^The party’s programme includes
“severance of all connection with British imperialism, abolition of
landlordism without compensation, confiscation of foreign capital
invested in banks and industries.’’ The programme also urges
nationalisation of big industries, banks and insurance companies and
the re-organisation of States on a linguistic basis. This is a Marxist-
Leninnist Party following the guidance of Cominform.
Democratic Vanguard — ^This party was formed in 1943 by those
who seceded from the Radical Democratic Party. Its object is the
“attainment of the democratic revolution’’ in India.
Rastriya Swayam Sevak Sangh — It was started in, 1925. Its
objects are the military training of the Hindus, development of social
consciousness and building up of character, and promotion of physi-
cal, intellectual and moral well-being of the Hindus and the
establishment of Hindu Rashtra. The party has now stated its main
objective as revival of Hindu culture.
Socialist Republican Party — ^was started by late Sarat Chandra
Bose in 1948 with the object of complete independence of India free
from all foreign influences. The setting up of Socialist Republic on
the linguistic basis and the establishment in the country of a Union
of Socialist Republics are the main objects of the party.
Sarvodaya Samaj — A fellowship of those who believe in the
Gandhian ideals. It is not an organisation but a voluntary brother-
hood of constructive workers who have faith in Gandhian ideals of
truth and non-violence. Its central idea is the insistence on the
purity of means in the same way as of ends. Khadi, Harijan up-
lift, service to Adibasis, , leprosy relief work and promotion of com-
munal harmony form the main activities of Samaj.
Revolutionary Socialistic Party of India — Preaches Marxist doc-
trine and wants to establish a socialist state in India through
revolution.
Revolutionary Communist Party of India — another _ Marxist
party in India which calls itself Leninnist, which characterizes Con-
118
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
gress as bourgeois organisation. It is anti-Soviet vrith Trotskyite
leanings.
Kishan Party — Is a peasant movement ■with socialistic outlook.
Its programme is the amelioration of the Indian peasants. Though
separate from the Congress, its programme is identical with
Congress.
Bharatiya Jan Sangh — A political party hounded in 1951 by Dr.
Shyama Prosad Mukerjee. It believes in Akhand Bharat and also
demands a more stiff attitude to works Kashmir question.
All India hluslim Majlis — ^Progressive Nationalist Party of
Muslims, was opposed to creation of Pakistan and supporters of
Congress ideals.
Jamiat-ul-ulema-Hind — An organisation of Moslem divines and
religious teachers. It has always supported the political programme
of the Congress. It was a supporter of Indian independence on reli-
gious grounds. It has now dropped its political programme.
Shia Political Conference — Represents Shia Moslems and is the
most important minority among the supporters of the Congress.
hlomin Ansar Conference — Its main policy has centred on oppo-
sition to hluslim League and to Pakistan. The Conference is the full
supporter of Congress politics.
Akali Dal — A politico-religious party of a section of the Sikhs.
It aims at the establishment of a Punjabi Suba as a homeland for
the Sikhs within Indian Union and advocates the adoption of Guru-
mukhi language as state language for the Punjab State. So far as
politics is concerned, the party has recently merged with the Congress
and wants to confine its activities to social, educational, economic and
cultural field.
Akhil Bharatiya Jan Sangh — A sectarian group pludged to Work
for an annulment of partition and for social and economic regerera-
tion of the country in conformity with national traditions and Hindu
culture.
Other Parties — ^During General Election of 1951 in India numer-
ous parties came into being, both Indiavide or provincial. The fol-
lowing are some of the parties which took part in the elections —
Ram Rajya Parishad, Akali Party, Lai Communists, Zamindara
League, Krishikar Lok Party, Gorkha League, Jharkand Party
(Chota Nagpur), Justice Party (Madras), Common Wealth Party,
Tamilavd Toilers Party, Ganatantra Parisad (Orissa), Janata
Party (Bihar) etc. i
POLITICAL TERMS
Absolutism — ^The system of unlimited government, the governed
havdng no representation, vote or other share in the administration.
An absolute ruler governs in accordance with his own will without
consulting the people and without being bound by any law. Abso-
lutism is opposite to constitutional government and democracy and
the antithesis to the separation of powers.
_ Amnesty— rAn act of Government granting exemption from cri-
minal prosecution and punishment.
POLITICAL INFORMATION
119
Ambassador — ^Higb ranking minister representing his govern-
ment in a foreigrn country.
Appeasement — A policy of pacification or yielding to the
demands of a potential enemy rather than opposing him by force.
Anschluss — German word meaning a “joining.” Politically, it
refers to the union of Austria with Germany effected on March 12,
1938.
Apartheid — An African word for “separateness.” It means
complete segregation socially and politically, of white and non-white
peoples, and among the non-whites of Bantus, Indians and coloured
peoples of half-castes in South Africa where Union of South Africa’s
Group Area Bill legislates for different residential and trading areas
for all sections to "make South Africa safe for the white races.”
Agent ‘Provocateur — A French term for political agent sent
during political or social conflicts into the adversary’s ranks to pro-
voke in the guise of an adherent incidents and compromising actions-
Austerity — A severe or enforced economy characterized by a
lack of luxuries (as post-war austerity of Great Britain).
Authoritarianism — The political system in which the government
is based on what is claimed to be the natural need for a strong and
resolute authority to direct the state without reference to the fluc-
tuating opinions of the people, as opposed to the democratic system
based on their freely expressed opinions. The term is a milder name
for absolutism. Totalitarian systems like Fascism, Nazism and
Communism are .extreme forms of authoritarian government, al-
though Soviet Union would reject the application of the term to
itself.
Anti-Semitism — Opposition to the Jewish race. The movement
became conspicuous in Europe during the last quarter of the 19th
century. The movement appears to be, based on economic rather
than religious or political cause. It flared up strongly in Nazi Ger-
many under Hitler.
Armed Neutrality — The position assumed by a neutral when
it sem'es notice on belligerents that it is prepared to protect its
neutral rights by force.
Autocracy — means the unlimited rule of an individual.
Autarky — A term used for the idea of national self-sufficiency.
The usual motive of autarky is the striving of domestic producers to
monopolise the market, preparation for war and blockade and a
general transference of nationalism to economists. Means for
fostering autarky include protective tariffs, a ban of imports, sub-
sidies and deliberate planing.
Armistice — Agreement between combatants to cease fighting.
It may be either temporary for the purpose of removing the wound-
ed or burying the dead or it may be a preliminary to a general peace.
Anarchism — A political doctrine standing for the abolition of
every organised authority and of State machinery. The anarchists
hold that every form of government tantamounts to tyranny. They
want to do away with all forms of state and government and to sub-
stitute for them free associations of individuals or groups without
any coercive organisation, without written law, police courts, prisons
120
HINDUSTAN TEAE-BOOK
or armed forces. . In snch a society men are expected to live toge-
ther harmoniously on the basis of voluntarily respected mutual
contracts.
Bamboo Curtain — ^hlilitarj’, political and propaganda barrier
isolating territory controlled by Chinese communists.
Ballot — ^The paper on which are printed the nam^ of candidates
for office in elections. The elector indicates ids choice by marking
a cross in plurality electoral systems.
Bicameral System — That form of government which consists of
two separate houses or chambers in which the concurrence of both
is necessary to the enactment of legislation. Adopted to act as a
check upon hasty or ill-considered legislation.
Bilateral — ^T^o-sided, a term used of agreements concluded be-
tween only two parties, as distinct from multilateral agreements
which are between several parties.
Biological warfare — ^Warfare in which living organisms, speci-
ally disease germs, are used against human, animal and -plant life;
also warefare invoUang the use of synthetic chemicals against plants.
Bhoodan movement — ^The rehabilitation of landless agricultural
worker is the primary objective of Bhoodan- movement. The philo-
sophy behind the Bhoodan movement is that ‘all the land belongs to
God’* or the community ■ and therefore it must be shared -with those
who are ready to work on it for the community. This movement
.was started on April 18, 1951 by Acharya Venoba Bhave. 'While it
began as a mere land-gift movement, it has gro-wn to inco^orate the
Sampattidan, -Konpdan, Haldan, Grihadan, Bxtddhidan, Shr’amdan, etc.
Balance of Power — ^This phrase means the preservation of an
equality of strength between countries or groups of countries. The
idea is that no one country shall become too powerful for the safety
of the others.
Blockade — A term used in international law for the prevention
of goods entering or lea-ving an enemy country by land or sea. Neu-
tral States are affected most by a blockade by sea, for if their ships
try to approach the ports of blockaded country, they and their car-
goes are liable to be confiscated by the blockading force.
Bourgeois — French word for the middle class. They comprise
capitalists, manufacturers, merchants, bankers, generally all inde-
pendent producers, traders and -employers, also directors and
managers and members of the professions with a corresponding in-
come and social status, in contrast to the Proletariat, the working
class -without any property who lives on selling its labour.
Bloc — means an association of legislative members or of poli-
tical workers of different parties, formed to support a certain mea-
sure or ministry. A French word meaning ‘mass’ or ‘group.’
Bolshevism — accepts the doctrine that an irreconcilable antago-
nism exists between the propertied class or bourgeois and the pro-
perty-less workers. It invites as inevitable and necessary class war
the object of which is . the destruction of all classes, except the prole^
tariat, in whose interest and by whom future society -will be orga-
nised and governed on a communistic basis.
Book burning— Systematic destruction, usually by a government,
POLITICAL INFORMATION
121
of books believed to contain dangerous ideas, hence, the supression
of ideas.
Brain Trust — ^In U.S.A. the nickname for a group of economists
and businessmen who were officially advisers to President F. D.
Roosevelt during the first year of his presidency and are believed to
have greatly influenced his ‘New Deal’ policy. The term has since
been applied to other groups of experts believed to be influencing
government.
Brainwashing — The forcible replacement of one set of political
ideas by another set, specially through indoctrination or mental
torture.
Buffer State — a small state established or preserved between
two greater states to prevent direct clashes between them.
Bureaucracy — government by an elaborate system of administra-
tive departments and officials which generally tends to become un-
wieldy and laborious in its operation. It produces red tape or over-
systematization. Its most frequently charged defects are rigidity,
conservatism and spirit of routine.
By-cleclion — Election to a seat rendered vacant during the run-
ning term of an elected body due to resignation, death or any other
subsequent disqualification.
Capitalism — the economic system founded on free enterprise and
private ownership of the means of production and , distribution.
■ Caucus — A meeting or conference of members, of a political
party in an ensuing election or other political contest.
Civil Disobedience — Refusal to co-operate ■, with government
without however using violence.
Coalition — is a combination of political parties having different
or opposed interests, effected with the object of carrying through or
resisting a particular policy.
. Commonwealth of Nations — Collectively the loose association of
States formerly subject to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Ireland and now recognising the Queen of the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Northern Ireland as “Head”. The term “Common-
wealth” countries’ covers both the self-governing members of the
Commonwealth and the Colonies.
•• Concordat — An agreed pact ; specially between Pope and a gov-
ernment equivalent to international convention.
, ■ Contraband — goods or merchandise the importation or exporta-
tion of v.’hich is forbidden ; in war time applied specially as between
neutrals and belligerents.
Communism — Represents revolutionary socialism, hostile to the
slow progress or gradual reform and progressive compromise. Com-
munism believes in the dictatorship of the proletariat for a transi-
tional period, after which a free society would come into existence
in which every body would contribute to the common weal 'according
to his capacity and receive a reward according to his need — Commu-
nism proclaims the equality of all peoples and races and believes in
the final establishment of an international order.
Colour bar — The denying by white men, Europeans or persons
of European descent, of legal and social rights to coloured persons.
122
HINDUSTAN ' YEAR-BOOK
Collective Responsibility — in countries vvitb parliamentary gov-
ernment, the joint responsibility of the government to the Parlia-
ment. The government is responsible for the political actions of
each member of it and each member is responsible for the actions of
the government.
Collective Security — Security of all the members of an associa-
tion of nations from aggression by any other nation or nations. _
Cold War — A struggle between two nations or groups of nations,
waged by use of political and economic strategy, propaganda and
other measures short of armed combat.
Corporate State — A state organised politically on the basis of
vocational corporations instead of territorial units. A corporate par-
liament does not consist of representatives of territoral constitu-
encies but of delegates of professional corporation who are sent to
the parliament according to the quota system.
Corridor — ^A strip of the territory of one State running through
that of another, usually to give access to the sea.
Coup D’etat — a sudden change of government by force effected
by holders of government or military power.
Constituent Assembly — is an assembly convened for the purpose
of drawing up a constitution, but it only comes and this is the vital
point — after there is a breahdown in the emsting machinery of
Government and a change has been brought about in the Status quo.
Condominium — A territory over which responsibility is shared by
two administering powers.
Conscientious Objector — ^Person who refuses to enlist in the mili-
tary service on moral or religrious grounds.
Colony — a company of people, purposely or otherwise trans-
planted from their mother country and remaining subject to the
jurisdiction of the parent State.
Croo-n Colony — A British Empire colony in which the Crown
retains some kind of control over legislation.
Customs Union — A union of states or nations for the purpose of
establishing orderly trade with one another and a common tariff on
imports, exports and goods in transit as now established in Low
Countries of Euroue.
Democracy— “Government of the people, by the people, and for
the people” — LiucnJn. It is based upon freely elected representative
institutions and upon an executive responsible to the people. It is
based upon the fundamental assumption of the equality of all indivi-
duals and of their equal right to life, liberty (including the liberty
of thought and expression) and the pursuit of happiness.
Demarche — Diplomatic term from the French, used for repre-
sentations whether moderate proposals or severe threats, made by
one state to another through diplomatic envoys.
Diarchy — A form of government in which the supreme power of
the state is vested in two bodies or persons.
Diehards — extremely orthodox and unbending members of a
party ; it was specially applied to the members of the Conservative
party.
Dictatorship — Control of Government or ruling power by a mino-
POLITICAL INFORMATION
123
rity or by an individual. In ancient Rome, the dictator was recog-
nised as a ruler. In modem times, Dictatorship flared up in Europe
after the World War I. Mussolini in Italy and Hitler in Germany
seized power unconstitutionally but with the support of the people.
Dollar Diplomacy — A nickname for the foreign policy of U.S._A.
for the purposes of expanding American financial and commercial
interests abroad under the guise of promoting international friend-
ship.
Dominion Status — Dominions “are autonomous communities
within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one
to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, united
by a common allegiance to the Crown.”
Diplomacy — Art of negotiation specially between countries.
Each country possesses a diplomatic service t • carrv on negotiations
with foreign countries. Some diplomats such as ambassadors, mi-
nisters, envoys, etc., go abroad and live in a foreign capital to keep
in touch with the Government. Their business is to watch over in-
terests of their country and to send regular reports upon all that
concerns it.
Electoral College — Any body of electors limited in number, meet-
ing in one place to choose a public official.
Extra-Territoriality — ^the legal fiction that foreign diplomats and
diplomatic agencies are outside their country of residence inspite
of physical presence. Embassies etc., form foreign islands, so
to speak, within the territory of a state. They are not subject to its
laws.
Extradition — Surrender of a fugitive from justice by one country
or state to the authorities of another.
Espionage — A French word which expresses more than English
word spying ; it implies an organised system.
Federalism — A system of government wherein political powers
of the state are constitutionally distributed between National
Government and the local Governments or member units which are
called ‘States,’ ‘Provinces,’ etc. The division of powers between
Federal government and separate states is laid down in the cons-
titution and varies between one another.
Fifth Column — Secret supporters of an enemy engaged in
sabotage or other subversive activity within defence lines.
Filibuster — A politician who attempts to delay, or stop the
passing of a bill by endless speech-making and other legitimate
practices.
Geneva Convention — An international treaty regulating the
treatment of the wounded in war, adopted at a conference held in
1864 and replaced by the existing agreement of 1906.
Guerilla — ^Irregular warfare. Guerilla warfare consists in
attacks upon a regular army by bands of irregular troops, usually the
inhabitants of an invaded country.
Genocide — The destruction of a human group, racial, ethnic, reli-
gious or national by slaughter, starvation, sterilization, compulsory
abortion, mass kidnapping or other violent means. The word
was coined by a Polish lawyer R. Lemkin. In 1948 the U.N. ap-
124
HINDUSTAN TEAK-BOOK
proved a new international law defining Genocide as a crime. The
convention having been ratified by 20 U.N. members, became effect-
ive Jan. 12, 1951.
Gentleman’s Agreement — ^An informal international agreement
based on a verbal exchange or corespondence, without a treaty or
convention being signed.
Gerrymander — A practice of laying out electoral districts to
ensure the majority of votes for party in power.
Hegemony — Eldership ; especially of one state or a group.
Imperialism — Policy of empire-building and conquests transcend-
ing national frontiers. It now means for every policy of conquest
and colonial expansion.
Internationals— Socialist movement in which socialists from
many countries are united. There have been three such movements
or Internationals, and each has held several Congresses. First
Intemntioval — accepted a programme drawn up by Karl Marx and
had lasted from 1866 to 1874. Second International, in which there
was trade union element, was organised in 1889. It sought to com-
pass the aims of Socialism by constitutional, not revolutionary action
and it held several congress between 1882 and 1930. The Third
International was organised in Moscow and was revolutionary in
its aims. It declared in favour of establishing communism by force.
Imperial Preference — In the British Empire, the trading system
whereby the members of that Empire give to each other prSerentaal
treatment in their tariff regulations and import quotas.
Iron Curtain — A barrier created by such means as censorship
and prohibition of free travel to isolate Russian controlled territory
from outside contacts, hence, any similar barrier against
communication.
Isolationism — The path of keeping aloof from affairs of other
countries.
Joint Responsibility — ^The guiding principle of the Cabinet sys-
tem of Government. Although every minister is in charge of a parti-
cular portfolio, all ministers are jointly responsible to the legislature
and a vote of no-confidence against one is a censure on alL
Lebensram — German word for fiiving space’, a new word for
German imperialism. It was used to stress that population is too
dense and to claim such territories as agricultural regions towards
Black Sea and co’.onies overseas.
Leftist — one who belongs to a radical or. revolutionary party;
also one who holds or advocates ultraliberal principles.
Lend-Lease — ^The system of lending- and leasing supplies and
installations to each other developed by the allies in the World War
II. It was started by President Roosevelt.
Marxism — ^The socialist doctrine following the theories of Karl
JIarx (Germany). His ideas are that all wealth is produced bv La-
bour and should go to labour, and that as this leaves nothing for the
capitalist, who can therefore never accept the system, the worker
must prepare for class war in which capitalism will be destroyed.
An essence of his theories is that history is largely determined bv"
oconotnic forces. ^
POLITICAL INFORMATION
125
Moratorium — A period during which no business engagements
are completed or debts or liabilities enforced. A moratorium is
declared by the government in times of a financiai crisis.
Most-Favoured Nation Clause — a clause customary in treaties
of commerce whereby signatories undertake to extend automatically
to the other party any reduction in tariff or other economic favour
which they may in future accord to any other country. Thus if a
country at a later date grants a tariff reduction in respect of some
articles to some other county, this will also apply to all the coun-
tries with which it has previously made trade treaties.
Naturalisation — The word is used for the admission of a person
of foreign nationality into that of a country he desires to adopt. An
oath of allegiance has to be taken.
Non-aggression Pact — Treaty between two or more states pled-
ging each not to attack the other and to settle their disputes by nego-
tiation or arbitration.
Non-intervention — Generally the principle of abstination from
interference with the internal affairs of other nations. It rests on
the recognition of sovereignty as the permanent factor in inter-
national relations and is one of the most often involved principles
in the policies of the world.
Non-belligerency — This word is used for sympathetic attitude;
short of fighting which a country adopts towards one side in war
time. It therefore differs from the strict impartiality called for in
neutrality.
Nationalisation — Taking management by the state of trades
and industries, etc., with or without compensation ; changes from
private to state ownership.
Neutrality — In international law, condition of a state abstaining
from participating in a war between other states and maintaining
an impartial attitude in its dealings with the belligerent states, wito
the recognition of this impartiality by the warring states.
Open Door Policy — System of keeping trade open to all coun-
tries, disregarding monopolies or preferences on equal terms with-
out privileges or discrimination.
Opposition — Freedom to oppose the existing government is fun-
damental to democracy and the British practice of calling the Oppo-
sition “His Majesty’s Opposition” on the analogy of “His Majerty’s
Government” is a recognition of the fact that the opposition is as
loyal and essential to the state as the government.
Ordinance — That which is ordained by authority. Ordinance is
an act promulgated by the chief of the state without passing through
the legislature of a country.
Panch Shila — five principles of co-existence jointly enunciated
by Jawaharlal Nehru and Chinese Prime Minister Chow En Lie.
The countries that have so far specially commended the ‘Panch Shila'
are-;-China, Indonesia, Burma, India, Nepal, Laos, Cambodia,
Democratic Republic of Viet Nam and Yugoslavia. The five prin-
ciples of Panch Shila are (1) mutual respect for one another’s
territorial integrity and soverignty, (2) non-aggression, (3) non-
interference in one another’s internal affairs, for any reasons of
126
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
an economic, political or ideological character, (4) equality and
mutual benefit and (5) peaceful co-existence. These principles also
formed the basis of joint declaration made by India and U.S.S.R. on
June 22, 1953 and also by Poland on June 27, 1955.
Parole — ^An oath taken by a prisoner of war that, if released, he
will not try to escape, nor during a war against his captorsi
Partisan — ^A member of a guerilla band working behind enemy
lines and engaged in such activities as sabotage, demolition, and
^versionary attacks.
Point of Order — A question raised by a member of a legislative
body as propriety of a motion 6r proceeding under the rules. The
presiding oflScer is required to rule on it immediately as his ruling
is subject to appeal to the floor.
Power Politics — (1) the policy of maintaining and expanding
national power for power’s sake, (2) the sum total of international
relations in a world consisting of sovereign states whose existence
depends on power, (3) by a more narrow definition, the use of threats
and force for the achievement of political objects in international
relations without consideration of right and justice.
Protectorate — A territory not formally annexed, but in respect
of which, by treaty grant, usage, ' sufferance and other lawful
means, the other state has power and jurisdiction.
Purge — Expulsion, possibly killing of unreliable, unruly, diso-
bedient or merely inconvenient members of a party.
Putsch — German word meaning “attempt to take by force”,
specially power, control of state.
Prize Court — This is a court of law set up in time of war to
decide whether a ship and its cargo captured by the navy is a lawful
prize or not. If it is decided that a captured ship is enemy property
or a cargo is contraband, they are sold and the proceeds are distri-
buted to all members of the navy at the end of the war.
Privy Purse — In England allowance from civil list for personal
use of the Sovereign.
Prohibition — Government action which prohibits by law the
manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors except for medical or
sacramental use.
Plural Voting — System allowing a person to cast more than one
vote in the same election. The voter is eligible to vote in more
than one constituency by virtue of its special position i.c., a city and
a university vote by the same person.
Pacifism — Opposition to war or military force in any form.
Pacifists believe that all international disputes should be settled by
arbitration. The various movements towards world peace are not
necessarily wholly pacifistic, as they often advocate defensive war
and oppose only aggressive war.
_ Provincial Autonomy — ^The_ system (specially in Indian Consti-
tution) under which States enjoy complete autonomy as far as the
States subjects are concerned and have concurrent jurisdiction with
the Centre on subject of common interest.
Proportional Representation — is the method used in an election
by which the votes are so counted that each party has representation
POLITICAL INFORMATION
127
in the elective body in proportion to its strength, so as to ensure the
representation of minorities.
Plebiscite — An expression of the will of the whole people, sought
in ratification or disapproval of a particular measure, already decid-
ed but regarding which their elected representatives hesitate to act.
It comes from the Latin plebs, the common people.
Protectorate — A territory, not formally annexed, but over which,
by grant, treaty, sufferance or usage and other lawful means another
State has power or jurisdiction i.e. Zanzibar.
Protocol — The rough-draft of a diplomatic document on which
diplomatic transactions tentatively commenced.
Privileges, Parliamentary — ^“the sum of peculiar rights enjoyed
by each House collective.y as a constituent part of the High Court
of Parliament, and by members of each House individually, without
which they could not discharge their functions and which exceed those
possessed by other bodies or individuals .” — Erskine May.
Pourparler — An informal preliminary conference of representa-
tives of different groups, functions or countries looking to a formal
agreement settling disputed questions between the parties.
Police State — A totalitarian state having repressive government
control of radio, press, culture, and economic and political life.
Pogrom — A Russian word for 'devastation’, a term for mass
raids on Jewish quarters in Tsarist Russia; killing, looting and arson
were practiced. They were later introduced into Germany by Nazis.
Public Relations — The activities of a corporation, government,
or other organisation in building and maintaining good relations
with the general public or with special groups.
Public Utilities — Electric light, gas, telephone, street car and
other services of use to a'.l members of the community.
Proletariat — The wage-earning class of a community collectively
i.e., propertyless class dependent on .^ale of labour. In Marxism, the
Proletariat is opposed to the bourgeoisie, the employing class and
will eventually overthrow it.
Politbureau — Short for political bureau, the leading body of
communist parties. The communist party of Soviet Union has a
Politbureau which is regarded by many as real government of Russia
Every communist party in whatever country has a Politbureau.
Quislings — Local traitors, names after the Norwegian traitor.
Major Quisling, who betrayed his country to the Germans ; specially
those who quietly prepared the way for Germany in her neighbour-
ing countries.
Radical — ^Persons of political views quite different from those
held by the majority of persons who, in politics, are in favour of
sweeping reforms or other changes in government or laws.
Racketeer — One who levies blackmail on industry by threats of
interference.
‘Reds’ — Slang term for revolutionaries, specially communists,
derived from Red Flag, the traditional symbol of revolt.
Republic — State in which the sovereign power resides in the elec-
torate, which is the body of the people having a voice in electing
128
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
representatives to rule them. There is no hereditary sovereign to
rule.
Residuary Powers — In Federal Constitution where the powers
are divided between the federal centre and the federating States or
units under a system of three lists — ^federal, state or provincial and
concurrent. Powers' relating to new spheres of administration ' not
covered by either of the three lists are known as residuary powers.
Reprisal — A retaliatory punishment inflicted by one country
upon another for an alleged illegal act.
Right and Left — In the legislative bodies, it is the fixed habit of
the conservative groups and parties to seat themselves on the right
hand side of the Speaker or President and of the liberal or radical
element to seat themselves on the left. The term ‘centre’ is used
for middle parties or groups.
Regent — One -who rules on behalf of a sovereigpi, .when a sove-
reign is a minor, or is insane, or in any other way incapable of rul-
ing, it is usual to appoint a regent to act for him.
Referendum — Bringing a proposed law before the people as a
whole for decision. • •
Reciprocity — Exchange of commercial privilege. It is usually
experienced when two nations make tariff concessions to each other.
Sabotage — At first this word was confined in its meaning to mali-
cious waste or destruction of an employer’s property by workmen,
as a means of enforcing demands in labour disputes. Now it is be-
ing applied more broadly, to define any malicious crippling or des-
truction of property especially as practiced by foreign secret agents
or sympathisers for the purpose of damaging military equipment.
Sanctions — Coercive measures taken to ensure fulfilment of in-
ternational treaty obligations. Sanctions were provided in the cove-
nant of the League of Nations against countries resorting to war in
defiance of the Covenant. U.N. Charter also provides for sanctions
though it does not use the word ‘sanctions’. •
Satellite — A state or country politically and economically
dominated by a more powerful neighbouring one.
Secret Session — ^Por the discussion of important questions, Par-
liament sometimes sits in secret when aU withdraws from the hotiso
except the members.
Sphere of Influence — A region normally undeveloped, politically
under the determinative power of a foreign nation.
Splinter Group — ^In politics, a group broken away from a larger,
original organisation.
Soviet — Council ; a local governing body in the U.S.S.R. com-
posed of peasants, soldiers and workers which send deputies to the
higher congress.
Straw vote — Unofficial polling of public opinion.
Suzerainty — A state that exercises political control over another
state in relation to which he is sovereign.
Syndicalism — A socialist movement aiming at trade union socia-
lism instead of State Socialism.
Scorched Earth — A wartime policy of destroying all resources
when defending forces had to withdraw before the invader.
POLITICAL information
129
Self-determination-f-The principle that every distinct people or
nation ought to have the right to determine the question of its in-
dependence, its form of government and its political^ destiny.
Tammany Hall — A name ^ven to the Democratic Party’s orga-
nisation in New York city, which sprang from Tanjmany Society of
1805. One of the famous political machines of American history —
,very influential in New York city and State politics, also in the
"Democratic party on a national scale.
Third Force — term originating in the post'World War II ;
France, where it was applied to the Socialists and M.R.P. interme-
diate between the communists and the right-wing supporters of De
<Jaulle. It has been applied elsewhere to policies intermediate bet>
ween Communism and Fascism and other right-wing forces. It is
applied also to a group of States — W. Europe which would he suffi-
ciently strong and influential to reconcile the U.StA. and U.S.S.R.
by co-operating with both.
Totalitarian — a believer in the complete centralisation of govern-
ment control under the political group and suppression of other
parties.
Total War — denotes the present form of war in which the dis-
tinction between combatants and non-combatants are fast dis-
appearing.
Theocracy — A state governed by God or priests.
Trotskyism — ^The yiews of Trotsky on. sooialisru, revolution and
the development of Soviet Union and the movement propagating
these ideas. After the overthrow of Trotsky in 1925-27, a number
■of communists supporting his opposition to Stalin formed revolu-
tionary communist parties which in 1936 established Fourth Inter-
national which held conferences in Paris in 1936 and 1948. They
are left-wing communists, more radical and revolutionary than Stali-
nist, the official communist with -whom they are in conflict. These
Trotskites have appeared in various countries as ‘Revolutionary
•Communist Party,’ ‘Revolutionary Socialist Party’ etc.
Trust Territory — A territory administered by a State appointed
"by and responsible to, the United Nations after the 2nd World War.
Trusteeship — Administration by a member of the United Nations
■of an area not yet ready for self-government. > ■
Unilateral action — Action taken by one party to an agreement
■without consulting the other parties in international affairs.
Ultimatum — Final statement of demands, rejection of which is
assumed to lead at once to breaking-off friendly relations and to war.
Underground — organised, secret opposition to the government
•or force in power.
V. E. Day — Victory in Europe, May 8th, 1945, the day of the
■official end of the European phase of the World War II.
V. J. Day — ^Victory in Japan, August 14, 1945, the day making
the end of the war in Japan.
Warmonger — people who desire war and support war-like policy.
Whigs — Old name for English liberals, no longer in use. It was
the description of liberal party in English Parliament after 1680.
Veto — The term is most used to-day with reference to the
9
130
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
United. Nations but its 'history dates from Roman times. -^Feto’is
Latin for “I forbid it”; it' was the weird used by the Roman magis-
trate when invoking the law- against some action. In many modern
States the Bang or -President has the power-of; vetoing measures
passed W the legislature. In the United- Nations, ’’only -the five per-
manent members out of the eleven members of the Security Council
have •the’’ power of veto, which prevents a decision being taken even
if every, other member is in favour -of it.'
Welfare State — A state that, by" its concern with public health,
insurance against sickness and unemployment and similar measures,
assumes a large share of ’•esponsibility for the welfare of its citizens.
Wishful Thinking — signifies 'optimism not always founded on
reality. ■ ' '
Whip — A member of a- political party assi^ed to the task of
rounding up members of that party'-to ensure their votes and to' hold
them in line with the party policy. ‘ /
Writ — A document directed to some public officer or private
person commanding him to do a certain act therein specified.-
. , .PLANS, POLICIES, TREATIES, ALLIANCES, COUNCILS,
CHARTERS, CONFERENCES, ETC.
ANZUS TREATY — ^was signed on - Sept. 1, 1951. This was
■for -the security -for Pacific- as an area and maintenance of a chain of
•defence against any aggression. The treaty declared “no potential
aggressor . could be under the illusion that any of them stand alone
-in the Pacific”. The treaty was joined by Australia, New Zealand and
•.United States. j ' • i-; • ’ , ' • ;
-• , Atlantic Charter — A joint declaration, was made by Roosevelt-
Churchiil on Augmst 14, 1941, stating (1) no aggrandisement; terri-
torial or other. (2) No territorial changes without expressed -wish
of the people concerned. (3) Right of all people io' choose the form
of their o-wn government. (4) Restoration of sovereign rights and
self-government to those who have been forcibly deprived of them.
(5) ■ A'ccesSi-.on equal terms to trade and to raw materials of the
world. (6)_ Fullest collaboration between all nations' in economic
field. (7) Final peace of the whole world after destruction of' Nazi
tyranny. . . . ■ • . ■
Arab -League — The Arab States -formed a Union by a pact signed
in Cairo . March . 22, 1945 for the- puipose . of maintaining Arab soli-
darity.- The • League . consists of Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Saudi Arabia,
Syria, Lebanon. Yemen and Libya. Provision -was made for admis-
sion of the Arab portion 'of Palestine upon aebie-vement of independ-
ence. The League’s Council approved- customs, and payments agree-
ments,- Sept.- 7, 1953.- : ••.•... -
Arab Security Pact — This is knovm .as Arab League’ Collective
Security and -Economic , Co-operation Pact concluded on . July 17,
.1950.; The- pact has ffipen -ratified, by: Egypt, Iraq, Syria, Jordan
andjUebanon. . This '^eaty links the '.signatory States into military,
-political , and economic alliance pledging resistance to armed- attack
POLITICAL INFORMATION
131
and reaffirming their obligations under Arab League and U.N.
charters.
Bagdad Pact (MEDO ) — A pact signed by Turkey, Pakistan,
Iraq, United Kingdom and Iran ; It has two aspects — military and
economic. Each country has pledged to come to the aid of the other.
Benelux — ^This is the combination of three countries — Belgium,
Luxemburg and the Netherlands which have established a complete
Custom Union among themselves. No longer are there any tariff
barriers between these three countries. All three are now together
called Benelux. The Benelux has been an influential example of
closer economic co-operation for recovery of Europe.
Bandung Conference — This conference also known as Asian-
African Conference met April 18-27, 1955 at Bandung, near Jakarta,
Indonesia. The conference announced its aims as elimination of
colonialism, independence and self-determination for all peoples, and
membership for all nations in the U.N. The conference was initiat-
ed by five members of .the' Colombo Group : India, Ceylon,' Pa-
kistan, Indonesia, Burma. ’
The conference condemned “colonialism in all its manifesta-
tions”, supported the rights of Arab refugees in Palestine and' terri-
torial revisions, asked France to grant self-determination and inde-
pedene'e to Tunisia} Algeria and Morocco and supported the claims
of Indonesia to West New Guinea. The conference supported prin-
ciples of the U.N. human rights, disarmament, prohibition of nuclear
weapons, economic co-operation and urged aid for Asian-African
countries from International Bank and U.N.
Brussels Pact — The pact was signed in March 1948 by Britain,
Prance and the Benelux countries. It is a military defence pact
and also equally an economic co-operation pact. It pledges all five
countries to cease from bilateral injury to one another and to enlarge
their commercial exhanges. , ' ‘
It was designed “to foi-tify and preserve the principles of 'demo-
cracy, personal freedom and, political liberty, the rule of' law and
constitutional traditions." ■* ’
Colombo Plan — This plan began from July 1, 1961. It was a
six-year plan of economic aid to South and South-East Asia agreed
on at the British-sponsored Conference at Colombo in January 1960
by Great Britain, Australia, Canada, Ceylon, India, New Zealand,
Pakistan. Later Malaya, Singapore, North Borneo, Sarawak pro-
mised co-operation. Burma and Indonesia sent observers to meet-
ings of Consultive Committee in London. The Project will raise
£1,868 million, help by governments, raised by bank loans, contribu-
tions etc., to support mills, power plants,- railways, irrigation, other
capital ’ goods, thus combating poverty and communism. United
States is not a participant, but will consult on Point Four funds in
Asia. The International Bank of Reconstruction and Development
will co-operate. Britain will contribute £100,000,000, Canada and
Australia each voted £26,000,000 for the first year.
Cominform — The Cominform (Communist Information Bureau)
was set up at a secret meeting in Poland of communist delegates
from nine European nations on Oct. 6, 1947. It was the successor
132
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
body to the Comintern (Communist International) -n-hich -was dissolv-
ed in 1943. The original Cominform linked the Communist Party
of Russia with those of the East European States and that of France
and Italy, the two West European countries with the biggest Com-
munist Party membership.
Commonwealth of Nations — is a free association of mne
sovereign independent states, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia,
New Zealand, South Africa, India, Pakistan, Ceylon and the Federa-
tion of Rhodesia and Nayasaland. The members are bound together
by the community of ideals and interest. All the members owe
common allegiance to the Queen of England and is the symbol of their
free association in the Commonwealth. India being a Republic with
a President as head of the state does not owe alligeance to the Queen,
but accepts her as the symbol of the free association of member
nations of the Commonwealth and as such head of the Commonwealth.
Council of Europe — ^An institution of consultive character found-
ed on May 5, 1949 in London. It consists of a Committee of Ministers
(composed of Foreign Ministers of member countries) and a consul-
tive assembly (delegations from several parliaments), the former
providing means of - co-operation between governments, the latter
a means through which the aspiration of the European peoples may
he formulated and expressed- Every member government has
to "accept the principles of the rale of law and of the enjoyment by
all persons within its jurisdiction of human rights and fundamental
freedoms.
The member countries are — ^Belgium, Denmark, France, Greece,
Ireland, Italy, Luxemburgh, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Turkey,
United Kingdom, Iceland and German Federal Republic (Associate
Member).
Declaration of Human Rights — was passed by the General
Assembly of UJ^. on Dec. 10, 1948. The declaration was designed
as a statement of what men and women are entitled to expect in a
civilized world. The Declaration of Human Eights proclaimed the
inherent rights of the individual as against the power of any totali-
tarian state. “No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest. .... .to
arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home — No one
shall be forbidden to leave any country, including his own.„Hvery
one has the right to freedom of opinion and expression- The will of
the people shall be the basis of the authority of Governments ; this
shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections. Every one
has the right to work to protection against unemployment....
to join trade imions. Every one has the right to a standard of living
adequate for health and well-being of his famiIy„Every one has
the right to education.”
Dumbarton Oaks_ Conference — A meeting of the representatives
of U.SA., Great Britain, Russia and China held at estate known
as Dumbarton Oaks in Washington, recommending on Oct. 9,
1944 the creation of the United Nations, an intemation^ security
organisation.
Eastern Jlilitary Alliance — It is the military organisation of
POLITICAL INFORMATION
13S
Communist States in Europe to offset North Atlantic Treaty Orga-
nisation (NATO), the Western Military Alliance.
European Defence Community (EDC) — The 'treaty founding
European Defence Community was signed in Paris on May 27, 1952
by France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands and Luxem-
burg. Four supplementary agreements were signed : a protocol to
the NATO treaty extending guarantees of the NATO to EDC, a
reciprocal pact in which the EDC pledged the same guarantees to the
NATO, a treaty between the 6 EDC members and Britain committing
the 7 nations mutually to resist aggression against any one of the
group and a declaration by Britain, France and the U.S. that they
would regard any threat against EDC as a threat to their own
security and that they would maintain forces in Western Europe to
defend the North Atlantic area.
European Coal and Steel Community (E.C.S.C.) — It is a six
country alliance that seeks to strengthen Europe’s economy. The
members of the alliance are France, Belgium, West Germany, Italy,
Luxemburg and Netherlands.
Genocide Convention — ^was adopted by U.N. on Dec. 9, 1948. The
word genocide was coined by Prof. R. Lamkin of Poland to mean the
deliberate extermination of any human group on racial, religious or
linguistic grounds. The convention binds its signatories to prevent
and punish the crime of genocide.
Four Freedoms — President Roosevelt in his address to the Con-
gress of Jan 6, 1941 defined four essential human freedoms — (1)
Freedom of speech and expression, (2) Freedom of every person to
worship God in his own way, (3) Freedom from want, (4) Freedom
from fear. The programme was, substantially incorporated 'in the
Atlantic Charter (Aug. 1947).
Fourteen Points — ^Woodrow Wilson’s basis offered, Jan. , 8, 1918,
in a message to American Congress for an equitable and enduring
peace in settlement of World War I.
International Red Cross — Two international organisations are
known respectively as International Committee of the Red Cross and
the League of Red Cross Societies, both with headquarters in Geneva,
Switzerland. The first of these is a wholly international agency
unconnected with any national society which attempts to main-
tain the basic Red Cross, principle of the ' Geneva convention ; the
second agency is a federation of autonomous national Red Cross
Societies designed to further co-operation among them.
Japanese Peace Treaty — was signed at San Francisco on Sept._8,
1951 by 49 nations. The State of War between Japan' and the .Mlies
was terminated. Japan’s full sovereignty was recognised as is its
right to apply the U.N. membership. Japan recognised the inde-
pendence of Korea, renounced all rights to Formosa, Pescadores,
Kuriles, Sakhalin, the Pacific islands formerly under mandate to
Japan, the Antarctic area, Spartly Island and the Paracels ; Japan
agrees to U.N. 'Trusteeship over Kyukyu and Daito Islands, the
Bonius, Rosario Island, the Volcano Islands, Parece Vela and
Marcus Island.
League of Nations — An organisation of many nations formed in
134
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
January,- 1920 for the’.promotion of international peace and . co-opera-
tion ; dissolved in April, 1946. ■ ■ . ; ..
Marshall' Plan — also , known as ■ Organisation for European Eco-
nomic '.Co-operation ; on June 5, 1947, the U.S. Secretary of State,
Marshall: made a speech in the Harvard University in which he out-
lined the. seriousness of the shortage of dollars for the economic
situation of Europe and suggested American assistance in the eco-
nomic recovery on - the understanding that the European countries
reached some agreement about their requirements and the part they
themselves would take in giving proper effect to the action of U.S.
A conference of sixteen nations of Europe willing to work the Mar-
shall Plan began in Paris on July 12, 1947 and formulated an eco-
nomic programme which aimed at restoring European economy
by the end of 1950 by (a) a strong production programme by
each participant, (6) creation and maintenance of internal financial
stability, (c) maximum mutual help between the participating
countries and (d) a solution of the problem of the European trading
deficit •with the American countries. The report calculated the
deficit for the 16 countries and their dependent territories ,at $22,440
million over 4 year period.
-. 1 , Munich AgreementrrSigned by Germany, Great Britain, France
and Italy , on September 29, 1938 at Munich. It provided for the
cession' to Germany of the Sudetan-German districts of Czechoslo-
vakia;, the new , frontiers were guaranteed by all the signatories.
The agreement was violated in March, 1939 by Hitler seizing what
was ; left of the country.
• Mutual Security Programme — ^The plan of all economic aids by
U.S. A., .is contained in the Mutual Security _ Act of 1951 which sanc-
tions millions of dollars for military, economic and technical assis-
tance to free nations. A large part of mutual security funds are
allocated for defence. The remaining funds are used to develop
manufacturing facilities, to provide technical training and to ensure
economic stability. ' • • . ,
•. North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) — is an , associa-
tion of nations of North- Africa and. Western Europe. It is estab-
lished .by , a , treaty (North Atlantic Pact) signed in 1949 by United
States, • Canada, Iceland, Great Britain, : France, Belgium, Luxcm-
burgh,.- Netherlands, Norway, Denmark, Italy and Portugal. They
joined NATO to prepare for a possible armed attack of the Soviet
Union and other Communist countries. NATO countries agreed to
unite their, militai’y strengths for collective defence and for preser-
vation of peace and. security in the North Atlantic area. Member-
ship 1 'vvas- opened to other States. Greece and Turkey .were admitted
in T952. The Council of NATO :1s its planning and organising body.-
A. European .army to' consist of fifty or more divisions were estab-
lished. Supreme Headquarters of Allied 'Powers in Europe (SHAPE)
was established in- France.
• Organisation, of American States (OAS) — ^This organisation was
chartered' in .1948 for co-operation and mutual repsect among Ame-
rican States.
r.i ^Philadelphia Charter-^wps' adopted - by -'the International Labour
POLITICAL INFORMATION
135 ,
Organisation at the Philadelphia Conference on May 10, 1944. It
declares : that labour is not a commodity ; that freedom of expression
and of association are essential to sustained progress ; that poverty
anywhere constitutes a danger to prosperity everywhere ; and that
war against want requires to be carried out with unrelenting vigour
within each nation.
_ Point Four — In Jan. 20, 1949 President Truman outlined four
major courses of action for American foreign policy. The fourth
point from which the programme took its name, called upon the
peoples of the United States “to help the free peoples of the world
through their own' efforts to produce more food, more clothing,
more materials for housing and more mechanical power to lighten
their burdens. ... It must be a wide world effort for achievement
of peace, plenty and freedom.” Point Four is meant to make the
scientific and technical knowledge of America available to free
nations for their agricultural and industrial development. On Sept.
1950 funds became available for a Technical Co-operation Programme.
Pan-American Union — An international body created by the 21'
American republics for the fostering of mutual understanding , and
co-operation, with essential duty of making effective the resolutions
adopted by the successive Pan-American Conferences. A general
conference of the member Republics is held, quinquennially known
as Pan-American Conference. The Union is financed by its 21
members on the basis of population.
S. E. A. T. O. — South-East Asia Treaty Organisation was signed
in Manila on Sept. 8, 1954 by Australia, New Zealand, Pakistan,
Philippines, Thailand, United Kingdom and United States to
stren^hen defence in S. E. Asia and to develop economic measures
for social well-being. India did not join in the treaty, because
Mr. Nehru stated India’s participation in the Conference would be
inconsistent with her basic policy of peace of non-alignment with
the rival power blocs and with the role she had been called upon
to play as chairman of the supervisory commissions set up in
Indo-China.
Tariff Agreements (GATT) — ^Reciprocal tariff concessions, nego-
tiated at Torquay, England, were open to nations signing Torquay
Protocol of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT),
to which 35 nations had subscribed at Geneva. They cover four-
fifths of the world trade. At although the GATT was expected to
play only a “stop-gap role”, it has to its credit already three rounds
of tariff negotiations — Geneva (1947), Annecy (1949) and Torquay
(1950-51). These have resulted in the reduction or binding of tariff
rates on some 68,000 items affecting well over half the total world
trade. In addition to the achievement in the field of tariffs, the
General Agreement provides for a code of fair trading rules and the
elimination of discriminatory treatment in international commerce.
Tripartite Security Treaty — ^This is between U.S.A., Australia
and New Zealand, signed on Sept. 8, 1951 (1) to settle by peaceful
means any international disputes, (2) parties will consult together
wherever the territorial integrety, political independence or security
of any party is threatened in the Pacific.
136
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
■ UNICEF : — ^is a popular abbreviation for United "Nation Inter-
national Chjliren’s Emergency Fund. Established in 1946 and ad-
ministered directly by U. N. Secretariat, UNICEF is the world’s
largest voluntary international effort to improve the health and
weSare of children and mothers.
■Versailles, Treaty of — ^the peace treaty ending the war of 1914-lS
concluded between the Allies and Associated Powers and Germany
on. June 29, 1919. It imposed terms on Germany in regard to the
occupation of Rhineland territory for a period of years, the surren-
der of Alsace-Lorraine to France and parts of East Prussia to Poland,
the handing over to the Allies of Germany’s colonial possessions.
An important feature of this treaty was the establishment of
League of Nations.
Warsaw Pact — was si^ed by the . several communist countries —
U.S.S.R., Bulgaria, Albania, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Rumania and
Hungary on 14th blay, 1955 at Warsaw for a defensive alliance. It
provided for a unified command for all powers with headquarters
at Moscow.
.Western European Union '(W.E.U.) — Seven nations formally or-
ganised the Western European Union in 1955. Great Britain, Bkah’ce.
Belgium, Italy, Luxemburgh, Netherlands and Western Germany
ratified a treaty to establish the new defensive coalition.
WORLD POPULATION
Africa 208,000,000 Oceania 13,900,000
America, North 229,900,000 U.S.S.R. 213,000,000
America, South 118,100,000
Asia (Ex. U.S.S.R.) 1,307,000,000 World 2,493,000,000
Europe (Ex.U.S.S.R.) 403,100,000 (An U.N. Analysis for 1953).
POPULATION DENSITY OF THE WORLD
pop. per
sq. m.
World . . 43-1
Asia . . 126-9
Africa ' - . . 17-9
North America . . 24-5
South America . . 16-7
pop. per
sq. m.
Europe (Ex. European)
U.S.S.R.) . . 209-&
Australia . . 2-9
Oceania . . 14-7
U.S.S.R. . . 23-4
WORLD’S FIVE LARGEST CITIES
New York . . 12.3 million Shanghai . . 6.2 million
London . . 8.3 million Paris . . 4.8 millicfn.
Tokio . . 6.3 million
(U. N. Demographic Year-book, 1955).
ESTIMATES OF TOTAL POPULATION
(In thousands)
Argentina (1955) . . 19,108
Australia (1955) . . 9,202
Austria (1954) . . 6,969
Belgium (1954) .. 8,819
Bolivia (1964) .. 3,162
Brazil (1955) . . , 68,456
Bulgaria (1954) .. 7,350
Burma (1956) .. 19,434
Canada (1966) .. 16,601
Ceylon (1955) . . 8,588
Chili (1955) .. 6,774
China (1953) .. 582,603
Colombia (1955) .. 12,657
Costa Rica (1955) . I 951
Cuba (1953) .. 6,807
Cyprus (1964) ' . . 614
Czechoslovakia (1955) 13,089
Denmark (1965) - .. 4,439
Dominician Rep. (1955) 2,404
Egypt (1955)
. . 23,240
El Salvador (1955)
2,193
Equador (1954)
3,567
Finland (1955)
4,240
France (1955)
. . 43,300
Germany (1955)
. . 49,995
Greece (1954)
7,901
Guatemala (1955)
3,263
Hungary 1955)
9,808
Iceland (1955)
158
India (1954)
. . , 377,000
Indonesia (1954)
.../ 81,100
Iran (1955)
. . 21,146
Iraq (1954)
4,948
Ireland (1955)
2,909
Israel (1955)
1,748
Italy (1955)
. . 48,001
Japan (1965)
. . 88,900
Korea (1955)
. . 21,628
138
HINDUSTAN YEAK-BOOK
Estimates of Total Population — (Concld.).
Lebanon (1955) ' ' ' 1,425
. Luxemburg (1954) ' . . >. 306
Malaya (1955) . . 6,059
Mexico (1954) .. 28,849
Netherlands (1955) . . 10,747
New Zealand (1955) 2,136
Necaragna (1955) .. 1.245
Non\-ay (1955) .. 3,425
Pakistan (1954) .. 80,167
Panama (1955) . ^ 910
Paraguay (1955)' , . 1,565
Peru (1955) .. 9,396
Philippine (1955) . . 21,849
Poland (1955) . . 27,278
Portugal (1955) . . 8,765
(17. N.
Monthly
Porto Pico (1954) - . 2,229
Roumania (1954) . . 17,300
Spain (1955) ' . . 28,976
Sweden (1955) .. 7,262
Switzerland (1955) . • 4,978
Syria (1954) .. 3,670
Thailand (1955) .. 20,300
Turkey (1955) 24,100
U. of S. Africa (1955) 13,669
U.S.S.R. (1954) 216,000
U. K.(1955) ■ .• 50,968
U. S. (1955) . . ^ 165,248
Uruguay (1953) . . 2,525
Yugoslavia 1955) . . 17,550
Bulletin of Statistics, June, 1SS6).
WORLD POPULATION ACCORDING TO . RELIGION, 1954
Christian
Jewish
Muslim
Zoroastrian
Shinto
Taoist
Confusion
799,908,066
11,627,450
321,931,336
140,000
30,000,000
50,053,200
300,290,500
Buddhist
Hindu
Primitive
Others
Total
. . 150,310,000
. . 309,949,000
. . 121,150,000
. . 348,336,448
.. 2,443,696,000
{Encyclopaedia Britamiica’s 195S Book of the Year).
LARGEST CITIES
London (1951) . . 8,346,137 Sao Paulo (1950) . .
.New York (1950) . . 7,891,957 Los Angeles (1953) , -
,Tokio (1954) .. 7,665,369 Cairo (1947)
-Shanghai. (1952) ... 5,407,000 Philadelphia (1950)
Moscow (1939) ;. 4,137,018 Detroit (1950)
Mexico City (1953) .. 3,795,567 Tientsin (1952)
Chicago (1950) .. 3,620,962 Wenna (1951)
Buenos Aires (1952) 3,403,625 Hamburg (1953)
Leningrad ,(1939) .. 3,191,304 Peking (1949)
• Bombay (1951) .. 2,840,01t Sydney (1952)
Paris (1947) ...,2,725,374 Bucharest (1954) ..
Calcutta (1951) 2,648,697' Mukden (1952)
Calcutta (Greater) 2,911,209 Madrid (1950)
Rip De Janeiro (1950) 2,413,152 Canton (1952)
Osaka (1953) .. 2,249,306 Madras (1951)
2,227,512
2,104,663
2,100,506
2,071,605
1,849,568
1.795.000
1,766,102
1,722,800
1 . 688.000
1,621,040
1,600,000
1.551.000
1,527,894
1.496.000
1,429,985
WORLD POPULATION
139
BIRTH RATES
(Number of Births per 1000 Population)
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
Australia
23.0
23.3
22.9
22.5
22.6
Austria
14.8
14.8
14.8
14.9
15.5
Bel^tnn
16.4
16.7
lfr.6
16.7
16.S
Canada
27.2
27.9
28.2
28.7
28.3
Ceylon
40.5
37.5
39.4
36.2
37.9
Chile
33.9
32.7
34.6
34.3
China
49.9
46.6
45.3
44.5
45.3
France
19.6
19.3
18.8
18.9
18.4
W. Germany
15.8 ■
15.7
15.5
15.7
15.7
India
24.9
24.8
26.7
28.4
30.5
Iran
17.4
19.2
19.5
18.3
40.9
Israel
32.7
31.6
30.2
27.3
27.2
Italy
18.4
17.9
17.7
17.8
17.7
Japan
25.4
23.5
21.5
20.1
-19.4
Malay
43.6
44.4
43.7
43.8
Mexico
44.6
43.8
45.0
46.4
Netherlands
22.3
22.4
21.8
21.6
21.4
New Zealand
24.4
24.8
24.1
24.7
24.0
Norway
18.4
18.8
18.7
18.6
18.7
Portugal
24.5
24.7
23.4
22.7
23.6
Spain
20.1
20.8
20.6
20.0
20.6
Sweden
15.6
15.5
15.4
14.6,
14.8
Switzerland
17.2
17.4
17.0
17.0
17.1
United Kingdom
15.8
15.7
15.9
15.6
. 15.4
United States
, ,
24.5
24.7
24.6
24.9 -
24.6
DEATH RATES
(Number of deaths, exclusive of still births, per 1,000 persons) .
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
Anstralia
.. 9.7
9.4
9.1
9.1
89.
Austria
. . 12.7
12.0
12.0
12.1
12.1
Belgium
. . 12.6
11.9
12.1
11.9
12.7
Canada
.. 9.0
8.7
8.6
8.2
8.1
Ceylon
. . 12.9
12.0
10.9
10.4
11.0
Chile
. . 15.0
13.0
12.4
13.1
China
. . 11.6
9.9
9.5
8.1
8.6
France
. . 13.4
12.3
13.0
12.0
12.0
W. Germany
. . 10.5
10.5
11.0
10.4
10.8
India
. . 14.4
13.6
15.0
13.2
12.7
Iran
.. 7.5
6.1
6.9
7.1
9.7
Israel
.. 6.4
6.8
6.3
6.4
5.8
Italy
. . 10.3
10.1
10.0
9.1
9.2
Japan
. . 10.0
8.9
8.9
8.2
7.8
Malay
. . 15.3
13.6
12.4
12.2
. ,
Mexico
. . 17.3
15.0
15.9
13.1
, ,
Netherlands
.. 7.5
7.3
7.7
7.5
7.6
140
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
Death Rates — -(Coricld.).
New Zealand
.. 9.6
9.3
8.8
9.0
9.0
Norway
.. 8.4
8.5
■ 8.5
8.4
8.8
Spain
. . 11.6
9.7
9.7
9.1
9.8
Sweden
.. 9.9
9.6
9.7
9.6
9.4
Switzerland
. . 10.5
9.9
10.2
10.0
10.1
United Kingdom
. . 12.6
11.4
ii;4
11.4
11.7
United States
.. 9.7
9.6
9.6
9.2
9.3
(17. N. Monthly Bulletin of Statistics
June,
IPSe).-
MARRIAGE RATES
(Marraige per 1000 of popuIafio7i)
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
Australia
9.2
8.6
8.0
7.9
7,8
Austria
9.1
8.3
7.8
7.8
8.1
Belgium
.8.1
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.8
Canada
9.2
8.9
8.9
8.5
8.1
Ceylon
6.9
6.7
6.3
6.0
6.1
China
9.5
8.6
8.6
8.9
8.6
Finland
8.0
7.9
7.7
7.8
7.7
France
7.6
7.4
7.2
7.3
7.2
West Germany
10.3
9.4
8.9
8.6
8.7
Iran
7.4
7.3
7.2
7.2
7.2
Israel
11.7
11.3
9.6
8.7
8.6
Japan
8.0
7.9
7.9
7.9
8.0
Netherlands
8.8
8.4
8.2
8.3
8.3
Spain
7.5
7.7
7.6
8.0
8.1
Sweden
7.7
7.5
7.4
7.3
7.1
Switzerland
7.9
7.8
7.7
7.8
8.0
United Kingdom
8.2
7.9
7.8
7.7
8.0
United States
10.4
9.9
9.8
9.2
9.8
(Monthly Bulletin of Statistics,
U. iV
June,
1950),
CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
Sovereign Democratic Republic — Indian Constitution resolves to
«stablish a sovereign democratic republic. The country is absolutely
republic independent in its internal and external affairs. India being
a democratic republic the real fountain head of all powers are the
people. This sovereignty is vested in the people of the country.
The aim of the Constitution is to secure for all its citizens —
Justice, social, economic and political ;
Liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship ;
Equality of status and of opportunity ; and to promote among
them all.
Fraternity, assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity
•of the Nation.
Territory and Extent — ^There are in India fourteen States, each
-with a Governor as its head such as Assam, West Bengal, Bihar,
Bombay, Madhya Pradesh, Madras, Orissa, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh,
Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Mysore, Jammu & Kashmir.
There are six territories such as, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi, Mani-
pur, Tripura, Andaman & Nicobor Islands and Laccadive, Amindive
and Minicoy Islands.
Fundamental Rights — ^The Constitution of India makes a decla-
ration of some fundamental rights which it guarantees, against vio-
lation by the State.
The Constitution contains rights which are declared fundamen-
tal and justiciable. These fundamental rights have been classified
under the following heads :
1. Right to equality. 6. Cultural and educational rights.
2. Right of freedom. 6. Right to property.
3. Right against exploitation. 7. Right to constitutional reme-
4. Eight to freedom of religion. dies.
Ripkt to Equality — ^Discrimination against any citizen on
grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth is prohibited,
in public employment. Constitution assures equality to opportunity
for all. It has established social equality by abolition of title, local
and foreign.
Right to Constitutional Remedies — The Constitution guarantees
the right to every citizen to move the Supreme Court for enforce-
ment of all fundamental rights. And for that purpose the Supreme
Court is given general powers to safeguard these rights as well as
the power to propose particular remedies, such as habeas coTrpus,
mandamus etc.
Rights to Freedom — guarantees (a) Freedom of speech and ex-
pression, (b) to assemble peacefully and without arms, (c) to form’
associations or unions, (d) to move freely throughout India, (e) to
reside and settle in any part of India, (/) to acquire, hold and dispose
of properties, (a) to practice any profession, trade or business.
Religious Freedom — Subject only to public order, morality.
142
HINDUSTAN YBAK-BOOK
health and some other,- essential provisions, all persons are equally
entitled to freedom of conscience and the right ' to profess, practice
and propagate religion freely.
Cultvxal and Educational Rights~The Constitution provides for
the protection of the interests of linguistic, cultural and religious
minorities and their right to establish and administer their own edu-
cational institutions.
Rights against exploitation — ^Traffic in human beings is declared
punishable offence. So too is began (forced labour) except witiiont
payment or any form of forced labour except compulsory service for
the State for public purpose.
Rights to- Property— yio person shall be unlawfully deprived of
his .property, movable or immovable. ‘ ,
Directive Principles — ^The Indian Constitution also includes a set
•of directives enjoining the, state to undertake within its means, a
number of welfare measures. These are intended to assure; citizens
an adequate means of livelihood, raise the standard of - living, im-
prove public ' health, provide free and compulsory education for
children, and assure that, the operation of the economic system does
not result, in the concentration of wealth and means of production
■to the. detriment of the common good.
UNION "EXECUTIVE— President — ^The Executive at the centre
consists of the President and a Council of Ministers. The President is
the executive head of the Indian Republic; All the executive powers
of the Unionrincluding the Supreme command of the Defence Forces
is formally vested in the President and all executive actions are
taken In his name. He is elected by an electoral college' consisting
of the elected members of both Houses of Parliament and Legislative
Assemblies of the States, by the system of proportional representa-
tion by si^le. transferable vote.
The' qualification of. the office of the President — (1) he should be
a citizen ofThdia; (2) must have completed the age of 35 years; and
(3) qualified for election as a member of the House of the People.
He will not be eligible for election if he holds a job in Government,
givin"!: him financial rewards.
‘ - Term: of office — ^The President holds office for five years and is
eligible for re-election.
Salary and Allownace-^Tibe President draws a salary of
Rs. 10,000 and usual allowance.
Impeachment — ^The president may be removed from office by im-
peachment for any violation of the constitution.
Vice-President — ^is" the ' ex-officio Chairman of the Council of
States (Rajya Sabha).; -Any. citizen of India aged thirty-five years
and above and qualified for the membership of the Council of States
can be elected to this office by both the Houses of Parliament at a joint
sitting'' on the basis of proportionaT representation by single trans-
femble vote, - His term of, office is five years. When the President
is ill; 'if -he resigns or dies or is removed or is for any reason absent,
his -place will -be -taken by the Vice-President, till a new President
IS elected. ■ - . , .t , .
- -Council of Ministers— The Constitution provides for a Council
CDNSTITUTION OF INDIA
143
of Ministers. The actual executive authority is discharged by the
Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers appointed by him, all
of whom are collectively responsible to the House of the People, the
lower chamber of the Parliament. The Council of Ministers holds
office during the pleashre of the President.
LEGISLATURE — Parliament — The Legislature of the India
Union tonsists of the President and two Houses — (1) Loh Sabim
(House of the People), (2) Rajya Sabha (Council of States).
The Lok Sabha — consists of not more than 520 members. These
members are directly elected by the voters in the several states. Every
adult' or grown-up citizen of India is given the right to vote. The
normal life of the House is five years. The minimum age for mem-
bership is 25 years for the Lower House. The House of the People
elects a- Speaker and a Deputy Speaker from amongst its members.
Rajya Sabha — consists of not more than 250 members of
.whom 12 are nominated by the President. The nominated members
should be men of learning and wide experience such as artists, wri-
•ters, scientists and social workers. The Council of States is not
subject to dissolution, a third of its members retiring after every
two years. The elections to the Council are indirect. The Vice-
President of India is the ex-officio Chairman of the Council of States,
Powers and Privilages of the Parliament — The Constitution con-
fers! certain powers and privileges on members, of. the Houses of Par-
liament. No member of parliament “shall be liable to any proceed-
ings in any court in respect of anything said or any vote given by him
in parliament or any committee thereof, , and no person shall be so
liable in respect of the publication by or under the authority of either
house of parliament of any report, paper, votes or proceedings. The
powers, privileges and immunities of member of each house of
parliament shall ‘be such as may from time to time be defined by
parliament by laws and until so defined, shall be those of the House
of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, and of its
members and committees.”
The Difference between House of the People and the Council of
States is as follows — The difference is not merely in their size. The
powers given to them are not the same. The function of both is to
legislate but the greater part of this responsibility will be borne by
the Lower House. A bill has to be passed by both the Houses before
it becomes law. In case of a disa^eement between the two Houses,
a joinfsession of the two Houses is s‘ummoned to resolve the dead-
lock. The opinion of the Lower House will ultimately prevail owing
to its numerical majority. But it is to be noted here that the pro-
cedure regarding dead-lock relates only to Bills other than money
hills, for, as regards money bills the provision of the constitution is
that sole power shall belong to the Lower Hobse. Money Bills can-
not be introduced in the Council of States. They must, as a rule,
■originate in the House of the People.
JUDICIARY— Supreme Court of India. — The Supreme Court
of India consists ,of Chief Justice and not more than ten other
judges appointed by the President. Judges hold office until they
‘attain the age of 65 years.
144
HINDUSTAN -YEAMOOK
The Supreme Court decides dispute between the Government of
India and any State or States or between two or more- States involv-
ing any question of law or fact. Civil and Criminal appeals of a
certain kind from High Courts will also be heard by it. The Supreme
Court is also competent to order the enforcement of Fundamental
Eights. It has also Advisory Jurisdiction by which the President
can refer to it any question of public importance. The law, declared
by it is binding on aU courts of the country. ,
STATE GOVERNMENTS — States Reorganisation Act of 1955
and Behar and West Bengal Transfer of Territories Act, 1955 abolish
■the distinction of States as A B and C as envisaged in the Indian
•Constitutions. There are now two classes adminisfirative divisions —
(1) 14 States and six Territories. The 14 States are Andhra Pradesh,
Assam, Bihar, Bombay, Jammu & Kashmir, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh,
Madras, Mysore, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West
Bengal. The six Territories, all of which are centrally-administered
are as follows — Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Delhi, Himachal Pra-
■desh, Laccadive, Amindive and Minicoy Islands, Manipore and Tripura.
The full-fledged States enjoy the same democratic, administration as
the former Part A States.
States — ^There is a Governor for each State in whom all
■executive powers are vested. He is appointed by the Pre-
sident and holds ofHce during his pleasure. Any citizen of India
who has completed 35 years of age is eligible for the appointment as
Governor. Governor holds office for a term of five years unless he
•resigns earlier. Besides official . residence the Governor draws a
: salary of Rs. 5,500 per month and other allowance and privileges.
.The Governor will be assisted by a Council of Ministers with
-Chief Minister at the head of the Council to aid and advise the
-Governor. The Chief Minister is appointed by the Governor and the
-other Ministers are also appointed by him on the advice of the Chief
Minister. Ministers hold office during the pleasure of the Governors.
'The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Le^lative
Assembly of the State.
_ Every State has a legislature. Some States have two chambers,
-while others have only one chamber. Where there are two chambers,
-one is known as the Legislative Council and other as the Legislative
Assembly and where there is only one House, it is known as Legis-
-lative Assembly. Those with two Houses .are Bombay, Bihar,
Madras, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. In all the States
“the Lower House is called Legislative Assembly and the Upper
House is known as Legislative Council.
Legislative Assembly of each State is elected by direct
election on the basis of adult franchise. The total of the Assembly
members shall in no case be more than 500 or less than 60. Its nor-
mal life is five years. Some seats may be reserved for Scheduled
'Tribes and Scheduled Castes. The Governor may also nominate the
-representative of Anglo-Indian community.
The total number of members of the Legislative Council of a
.•State IS not to exceed one-third of the total members in the Legis-
CONSTITUTION OP INDIA
145
lativc Assembly, but in no case shall be less than 40. This is a per-
manent body ; one-third of its members retires every second year.
Half of its members is elected from local bodies, from among the
graduates of three years standing and teachers who have worked at
least three years. A third of the members is elected by the Legis-
lative Assembly from among non-members and the rest is nominated
by the Governor from among men of eminence in literature, art,
science or social service.
Territories — Union Territories have no popular administration
and even Delhi, Himachal Pradesh and Tripura which had a Legisla-
ture and ministry of their own, have none under the new set-up (Re-
organisation of States Act, 1956). The Territories are governed
now through an administrator each with whom some non-official ele-
ments are likely to he associated. Parliament is the sole legislating
authority for these Territories, while additionally the President has
power of making regulations in respect of Andamans and Laccadives.
Advisory Councils have been set up in Delhi, Himachal Pradesh and
Manipore with elected members of the Parliament from these areas to
advise the Union Home Jlinister in the matter of legislation to be^
placed before the Parliament, on the budget to be framed in respect
of them.
States .Judicial^ — ^The Constitution envisages a high court for
each State, The High Court consists of a Chief Justice and such other
judges as the President may_ from time to time deem it necessary to
appoint. The judges of a high court are appointed by the President
of India in consultation with the Chief Justice of India and the
Governor of the State and in case of an appointment of a Judge other
than Chief Justice, the Chief Justice of the High Court concerned.
They hold office until they attain the age of 60 years and are remov-
able from office in the same manner as a judge of the Supreme Court.
Relation between Union and the States — ^Parliament can legislate
for the v/hole or any part of the territory of India and the Legisla-
ture of a State for whole or any part of the State. No law, how-
ever, made by the Parliament can be considered invalid on the
ground of extra-temtorial jurisdiction. For the purposes of distri-
buting legislative powers between the Centre and the States, three
comprehensive lists have been drawn up. These lists are (1) Union
List, (2) Concurrent List, (3) State List.
The Parliament has “executive power” to make laws in regard
to the matters mentioned in the first list i.e.. Union List. The Conc~
current Last means that matters shared between Union and the
States, such as criminal lav/, civil procedure, preventive detention,
marriage and divorce, transfer of property other than agricultural
lands, contracts, bankruptcy, etc.
There are 66 items in the “State List.” Some of them are police,
administration of justice, prisons, local government, public health
and sanitation, forests, fisheries, etc. The legislature of a State has
"exclusive powers” to make laws in matters mentioned in this list.
Jurisdiction over all other matters not mentioned in the Con-
current and State Lists will belong to the Parliament. This means,
that the Union will acquire residuary powers.
10
146
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
As regards Administrative Relations, the executive powers ol
every State shall be so exercised as to ensure compliance with the
laws made by the Parliament and any existing laws which apply m
that State, and the executive power of the Union shall extend to the
giving of such direction to the State as may appear to be necessary
for that purpose.
Union executive is empowered to give direction to a State
regarding construction and maintenance of the means of communi-
cation declared to be national or military importance. Parlia-
ment can declare certain highways or waterways to be national high-
ways or waterways. Union executive can also const^ct and main-
tain means of communication required in connection with naval, mili-
tary and air force works. The President may with the consent of
the Government of the State entrust to that Government functions
in relation to any matter to which the executive power of the Union
exists.
There is provision for the formation of an Inter-State Council
to investigate and discuss subjects in which States have common
interest and inquire into and advise upon disputes which may have
arisen between the States.
There are also Emergency provisions in case of grave crisis
created by war or internal disturbances in which President can
give direction to the constituent States as to how their authority to
be exercised. President can suspend from operation several articles
of the Constitution. During such period. Union Parliament has
power to legislate with respect of any of the matters enumerated in
the State List.
Election Commission — ^The superintendence, direction and con-
trol of elections to Parliament and Legislature of every State and
of President and Vice-President including appointment of a elec-
tion tribunals shall vest in an as Election Commission to be ap-
pointed by the President. The Chief Election Commissioner enjoys
conditions of tenure and service similar to those of a judge of the
Supreme Court.
There shall be only one general electoral role for every territo-
rial constituency and no person will be- ineligible for inclusion in
such role on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex or any of them.
There is no property qualifications of the voters. Every person
who is a citizen of India and who is not less than twenty one years
of age and who is not otherwise disqualified is entitled to vote at
the elections of the House of the People and the Legislative
Assemblies of States.
Special provisions for certain classes — Seats shall be reserved
in the House of the People for (o) Scheduled Castes, (6) Scheduled
Tribes.
If Anglo-Indian community is not adequately represented in the
House of People, President may nominate not more than two mem-
bers of that community.
Seats shall be reserved for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes m the Legislative Assemblies of the States. Anglo-Indians
CONSTITUTION OP INDIA
147
are to be nominated by the Governor or Rajpramukh of a State, if not
adequately represented.
The reservation of seats and special representation shall cease
after ten years from the commencement of this Constitution.
Financial and the other provisions — ^There is a provision in the
Constitution for setting up of a Finance Commission to make recom-
mendations to the President as to the distribution between the
Centre and the Units of the net proceeds of certain taxes (like the
income-tax, excise duties, some export duties, etc.,) and the alloca-
tion between the States of such proceeds.
The Central and State Governments are required to set up res-
pectively the Consolidated Fund of India and the Consolidated Fund
of the States respectively. All revenues received by the Government
of India and the Government of a State are to be credited into their
respective consolidated funds. No money is to be appropriated from
the Consolidated Fund of India or of a State except in accordance
with an Appropriation Act passed by Parliament or the Legislature
of the State concerned. Provision has also been made for the estab-
lishment of a Contingency Fiend of India and a Contingency Fund
for each State to meet unforeseen expenditure pending proper autho-
risation hy the appropriate legislature.
Authority to Audit — ^As for auditing the funds, the Constitution
provides for the appointment of a Comptroller and Auditor General
of India by the President to keep watch on the finances and accounts
of the Union. It is his responsibility to see that the expenses voted
by the Parliament or the legislature of a State and laid down in the
Appropriation Fund are not exceeded or varied.
Trade and Commerce — The Constitution provides the broad
principles of freedom of trade, commerce and intercourse throughout
the territory of India. Union Parliament and the State Legislatures
are, however, authorised to prescribe limitations when there is scar-
city of any particular commodity or any other consideration of
national or public interest. But no Legislature, whether Parliament
or a State Legislature has power to make a law giving any prefe-
rence to one state over another or discriminating between different
States in respect of items relating to trade and commerce in the lists
of the 7th Schedule. Only certain Part B States are exempted
from this provision for a period of ten years.
Official Language — Hindi in Devnagri script shall be the official
language of the Union and the form of numerals for official use shall
be the international form of Indian numerals. The English langaiage
shall continue for all official purposes of the Union for a period of
15 years, but the President may authorise, during the said period,
the use of Hindi in addition to English language. If at the end of
15 years, it is found that Hindi will not be able to replace English
wholly. Parliament may provide for the use of English for such pur-
poses as may be specified by law.
The Constitution recognised the use of Assamese, Bengali,
Gujerati, Hindi, Karnataka, Kashmiri, Malayalam, Marathi, Oriya,
Punjabi, Sanskrit, Tamil, Telegu and Urdu, any one or more of which
may be used as the regional languages of the Union.
148
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Amendment of the Constitution — ^Article 368 provides for the
amendment of the Constitution. The Constitution shall stand
amended when the President gives assent to any bill for the purpose
after it is passed in each House of Parliament by a majority of not
less than two thirds of the members of the House present and voting.
The only provisions, for the amendment of which ratification by the
legislatures of not less than one-half of the States has also been pres-
cribed, relate to the Supreme Court and High Courts, the distribu-
tion of legislative powers between the Centre and the States, the re-
presentation of the States in Parliament and the procedure for amend-
ment of the Constitution.
AMENDMENTS TO THE INDIAN
CONSTITUTION
Since the inauguration of the Constitution on January 26, 1950,
the following Amending enactments and Constitution Orders have
been passed —
1. Constitution (Amendment to First and ' Fourth Schedules)
Order, 1950 (C. O. dated 25th Jan. 1950).
2. Constitution (First Amendment) Act, 1951 — ^The first amend-
ment to the Indian Constitution was made by the provincial Parlia-
ment in 1951, known as The Constitution (First Amendment) Act,
The statement of Objects and Reasons to the first Amendment Bill
1951. By this. Article 19 and Article 31 were considerably amended,
states : “In the working of the Constitution during these 15
months certain difficulties have been brought to light by judicial deci-
sion and pronouncements. The right to freedom of speech has
been held by some Courts as so comprehensive as not to render a
person culpable even if he advocates murder and other crimes of
violence. In other countries with written Constitution, freedom of
speech and of the Press is not regarded as debarring the State from
punishing or preventing the abuse of freedom.”
The Proviso to Art. 19 was amended so as to impose reasonable
restrictions on the freedoms enumerated under that Article. The
Clause (2) states that the State can impose reasonable restric-
tions on the exercise of the freedom of speech and expression in
the interests of the security of the State, friendly relations with
contempt of court, defamation or incitement to an offence,
foreign States, public order, decency or morality or in relation to
contempt of court, defamation or incitement to an offence.
To Article 15, sub-clause (4) was inserted stating that the State
can make special provision for the advancement of any socially and
educationally backward classes of citizens or for the Scheduled
Castes and the Scheduled Tribes.
Two new Articles, 31-A and 31-B were inserted. Article 31-.A
provides that no law providing for the acquisition by the State
of any estate or of any rights therein or for the extinguishment or
modification of any such rights shall be deemed to be void on the
CONSTITUTION OP INDIA
149
ground that it is inconsistent with, or takes away or abridges any
of the rights conferred by any provisions of this Part (III).
To preserve the Zamindary Abolition Acts by various States in
India, Article 31-B provides that none of the Acts and Regula-
tions specified in the Ninth Schedule nor any of the provisions
thereof shall be deemed to be void, or even to have become void, on
the ground that such Act, Regulation or provision is inconsistent with,
or takes away or abridges any of the rights conferred by, any pro-
visions of Part III, and notwithstanding any judgment, decree or
order of any court or tribunal to the contrary, each of the said Acts
and Regulations shall continue in force.
3. Assam (Alteration of Boundaries) Act, 1951 (XLVII of
1951).
4. Constitution (Second Amendment) Act, 1952 : — ^By the Second
Amendment, Article 81 (b) was amended.
Art. 81 relates to the composition of the House of the
People. Sub-Clause (b) states that there shall be not less than one
member for every 750,000 of the population and not more than
one member for every 500,000 of the population. But on account
of increase in the number of population in the census of 1951, some
adjustment in the ratio of representation was necessary. Ac-
cordingly, the words — ^“not less than one member for every 750,000
of the population and” — ^^vere omitted. The result is that the upper
limit of representation is abolished and there shall be not more than
one member for every 600,000 of the population.
5. Andhra State Act, 1953 — (30 of 1953). This Act created a
New State out of Madras State.
6. Lushai Hills District (Change of Name) Act 1954 (18 of
1954).
- 7. Himachal Pradesh and Bilaspur (New State) Act, 1951 (32 of
1954). This Act amalgamated these two Part “C” States.
8. Chandemagore (merger) Act, 1954 (36 of 1954). By this
Act French Chandemaeore was merged with West Bengal.
9. Constitution (Third Amendment Act) 1954 — By the third
amendment, powers to control certain essential goods were transferred
to the Concurrent List. The amendment makes an amplification
of entry 33 of List III in the Seventh Schedule of the Constitu-
tion. Besides placing foodstuffs, including edible oil-seeds ond oils ;
cattle fodder, including oil cakes and other concentrates ; raw cotton
and cotton seed and raw jute, the amendment Act includes in this
entry also imported goods of the same kind as the products of cen-
tralised industries to enable the Centre to exercise full control over
the development of such industris.
Parliament’s power under Article 369 of the Constitution to legis-
late in respect of certain essential commodities lapsed on January 9,
1955. The amendment sought to_ place on a permanent footing
Centre’s power to control the specified essential commodities.
10. The Constitution (Application to Jammu and Kashmir)
Order, 1954 — (C.O. 48, dated 14th May, 1954). •
11. Constitution (Fourth Amendment) Act, 1955. — ^The statement
of objects and reasons to the amendment Bill states that the proposed
150
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
legislation is intended to meet objections raised by courts on questions
relating to the acquistion of private property. Recent decisions of
the Supreme Court have given a very wide meaning to Clauses 1 and
2 of Article 31. Despite the difference in the wording of the two
clauses, they are regarded as dealing with the same subject. The
deprivation of property referred to in Clause 1 is to be construed in
the widest sense as concluding any curtailment of a right to property.
Even where it is caused by a purely ragulatory provision of law
and is not accompanied by an acquisition or taking possession of
that or any other property right by the State, the law, in
order to be valid according to these decisions, has_ to provide
for compensation under clause 2 of the Article 31. It is considered
necessary, therefore, to re-state more precisely the_ State’s power
of compulsory acquisition and requisitioning of private property
and distinguish it from cases where the operation of regulatory or
prohibitory laws of the State results in deprivation of property.
This has been effected by amending Articles 31 and 31-A by
Fourth Amendment.
The amended Article 31 provides for compensation for com-
pulsory acquisition of property by the State. The Article 31-A
empowers the State to take over under State management, for a
temporary period, a commercial or industrial undertaking or other
property in the public interest or in order to secure the better
management of the undertaking or property. Laws providing for
such temporary transference to State management is now permissible
under the Constitution without payment of compensation as this does
not amount to State acquisition of property.
Constitution (Fifth Amendment) Act, 1955: — The fifth amend-
ment came into force on 24th December, 1955. By this amendment
the Proviso to Article 3 of the Constitution has been changed as
follows : “Provided that no bill for the purpose shall be introduced
in either House of Parliament except on the recommendation of the
President and unless, where the proposal contained in the Bill affects
the area, boundaries or name of any of the States specified in Part A
or Part B of the First Schedule, the Bill has been referred by the
President to the Legislature of that State for expressing its mews
thereon within such period as may be specified in the reference or
within such further period as the President may allow and the period
so specified or allowed has expired.”
Constitution (Sixth Amendment) Act, 1956 — ^The sixth amend-
ment came into force on and from 11th September, 1956. The sixth
amendment amends the Seventh Schedule by providing a new entry
92 A (after entry 92) in the Union List). The entry 92 A read as
follows : “Taxes on the sale or purchase of goods other than news-
papers, where such sale or purchase takes place in the course of inter-
state trade or commerce.”
It also amends entry 54 of the State List as follows : “54.
Taxes on the sale or purchase of good other than newspapers, sub-
aect to the provisions of entry 92A of List I.”
Tt also amends Article 286 of the Constitution. The Explanation
CONSTITUTION OP INDIA
151
in clause (1) has been omitted. For clause (2) and (3) the follow-
ing clauses have been substituted :
“(2) Parliament may by law formulate principles for determin-
ing when a sale or purchase of goods takes place in any of the
ways mentioned in clause (1).
(3) any law of a State, in so far as it imposes, or authorises
the imposition of a tax on the sale or purchase of goods declared by
Parliament by law to be of special importance in inter-State trade
or commerce, be subject to such restrictions and conditions in regard
to the system of levy, rates and other incidents of the tax as Parlia-
ment may by law specify.”
By virtue of this amendment, the Central Government shall levy
and collect taxes on the sale or purchase of goods other than news-
papers, where such sale or purchase takes place in the course of inter-
state trade or commerce. Parliament may by law formulate prin-
ciples for determining when a sale or purchase of goods takes place
in the course of inter-State trade or commerce. The proceeds of such
taxes shall be distributed among the States in whose territory the
tax will be levied and collected.
Constitution (Seventh Amendment) Act, 1956 — This Act came into
force from 1st November 1956. The States of India, as they exist
today have been formed largely as a result of historical accidents and
circumstances, and there has, therefore been a demand for the
reorganisation of the component units of the Indian Union oh a more
rational basis, after taking into account not only the growing impor-
tance of the regional languages, but also financial, economic and
administrative considerations. The States Reorganisation Commission
was accordingly constituted in December 1953, to investigate the
conditions of this problem, the historical background, the existing
situation, and all other relevant factors. On the recommendations
of the Commission, the Government brought a Bill, in 1956.
The main features of the reorganisation are the abolition of the
existing constitutional distinction between Part A, Part B and Part
C States, the establishment of two categories for the component
units of the Union, to be called States and Union Territories,, and
the abolition of the institution of the Rajpramukh consequent on the
disappearance of the Part B States. This Amendment provides the
constitution of 14 States, namely, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar,
Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Madras, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Jammu and
Kashmir. There will be six Union territories, namely, Delhi,
Himachal Pradesh, Manipur, Tripura, Laccadive, Amindive and
Minicoy Islands.
The Amendment also makes provision for the setting up
of five Zonal Councils which will be advisory bodies, compe-
tent to discuss matters of common interest, particularly in the field
of economic and social planning. The Northern Zone shall comprise
Punjab, Rajasthan and Jammu and Kashmir and the Union terri-
tories of Delhi and Himachal Pradesh. The Central Zone shall
comprise the States of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
The Eastern Zone shall comprise the States of Bihar, West Bengal.
152
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
Orissa and Assam, and tte Union Territories of Manipur and
Tripura. The Western Zone shall comprise the States of Bombay;
and the Southern Zone shall comprise the States of Andhra Pradesh,
hladras and Kerala.
The Seventh Amendment makes necessary changes in the Con-
stitution to give effect to the States Reorganisation Act. The
formation of Zonal Councils, however, is not incorporated into the
Constitution. The notable change made by the Seventh Amendment
is the increase in the number of members of the House of the
People from 500 to 520. Of this number, 500 will be elected from
the States and 20 from the Union territories. The ratio of members
to the number of population is abolished in the case of representation
to the House of the People.
As regards the composition of the State Legislative Assemblies, a
new Article 170 has been substituted which provides that the Legis-
lative Assembly of each State shall consist of not more than
five hundred, and not less than sixty members chosen by direct elec-
tion from territorial constituencies in the State. The ratio of popu-
lation to members to be elected is also abolished.
The total number of members of a State Legislative Council
shall hot exceed one-third of the total number of members of the
Legislative Assembly of that State.
High Coxirt Judges are permitted to practise, after retirement,
before the Supreme Court and the other High Courts (except the
one in which he held the judicial post).
Same person may be appointed as Governor for two or more
States.
Union Territories is to be administered by the President through
an administrator vith such designation as he may specify.
It shall be the endeavour of every State and of local authority
to provide adequate facilities for instruction in the mother-tongue at
the primary stage of education to children belonging to linguistic
minority groups. There shall be special officer for linguistic minori-
ties to be appointed by the President.
The number of seats in the House of the People to be allotted
to each of the State and the number of seats to be assigned to the
Legislative Assembly of each Part A State shall be as shown in the
following Table :
States.
Number of Scats in
Number of Scats in
the House of the
the Legislative
People.
Assembhr.
Andhra Pradesh
.. 43
301
Assam
.. 12
108
Bihar
.. 55
330
Bombay
.. G6
396
Kerala'
.. 18
12G
JIadhya Pradesh
.. 3G
288
Madras
.. 41
205
Mysore
.. 26
208
Orissa
.. 20
140
CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
153
Punjab
.. 22
154
Rajasthan
.. 22
176
Uttar Pradesh
.. 86
430
West Bengal
.. 34
238
Jammu and Kashmir
.. 6
Delhi
.. 5
Himachal Pradesh
.. 4
Manipur
.. 2
Tripura
.. 2
Constitution (Eighth Amendment) Act, 1956 : — In May 1966, the
eighth amendment to the Constitution was passed giving to the Centre
powers to regulate tax on goods of special importance in inter-State
trade. Article 286 of the Constitution has also been amended remov-
ing restriction on the States to impose sales tax on essential
commodities.
Local Bodies in India
In India there are 12 Municipal Corporations, 1,453 Municipal
Committees and Boards, 383 Small Town Committees, 82 Notified
Area Committees, 309 Local Boards, and 1,23,670 Gram Panchayats.
More than half the total number of villages in the country have been
covered by Panchayats.
Foreign Investment in India
Total foreign business investment in India at the end of De-
cember 1953, in terms of book value, was Rs. 4,210 million, of whicH
more than 80 percent was direct investment. The bulk of the
investment (nearly Es. 3,500 million) came from the U.K. Pri-
vate capital from U.S.A. predominently in the direct investment
category, totalled Rs. 310 million. The net inflow of foreign
private capital between 1948 and 1953 was of the order of Rs. 1,300
million, of which roughly 40 per cent represented reinvested pro-
fits of branches and undistributed profits of subsidiaries of foreign
companies.
INDIAN CITIZENSHIP
At present citizenship law is determined by the Indian Citizen-
ship Act 51 of 1955. The Act provides five methods for the acqnisi-
tion of Indian citizenship. These are : by birth, by descent, by regis-
tration, by naturalisation and by incoi'poration of territory. The Act
also provides for the termination of citizenship.
By Birth : Every person bom in India on or after the 26th
January, 1950, shall be a citizen of India by birth. Children bom in
India to foreign diplomats and enemy aliens, however, shall not ac-
quire Indian citizenship by bith.
By De.scent : A person bom outside India on or after the 26th
January, 1950, shall be a citizen of India by descent if his father is
a citizen of India at the time of his birth. But if the father of such
a person was a citizen of India by descent only, that person shall not
be a citizen of India by descent, unless his father is registered
at an Indian consulate within one year of its occurrence, or, his
.father is at the time of his birth, in service under a Government of
India.
By Registration : Citizenship can be acuired by registration on
application to the Government of India by any person who is not al-
ready such citizen by virture of the Constitution or by virtue of any
other provisions of this Act. He must belong to any of the following
categories : — (a) persons of Indian origin who are ordinarily resident
in India and have been so resident for six months immediately
before making an application for registration ; (b) persons of Indian
origin who are ordinarily resident in any country or place out-
side undevjded India ; (c) women who are, or have been, married to
citizens of India ; (d) minor children of persons who are citizens
of India ; and (c) persons of full age and capacity who are citizens
of a Commonwealth country.
Commonwealth countries include United Kingdom, Canada,
Australia, New Zealand, Union of South Africa, Pakistan, Ceylon and
the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. The Republic of Ireland
is also placed on the same footing. For the purpose of registration,
a person shall be deemed to be Indian origin if he, or either of his
parents, or any of his grand-parents, was bom in undivided India,
A person of full age must take an oath of allegiance before he is;
registered as a citizen of India.
_ By Naturalisation — A person of full age and capacity not being
citizen of a Commonwealth country, may be naturalised as an Indian
citizen provided he makes an application in the prescribed manner to
that effect. The qualifications for naturalisation of a person who is
not a citizen of a country in the Commonwealth are : —
(a) that he is not a subject or citizen of any country where
citizens of India are prevented by law or practice of that country
from becoming subjects or citizens of that country by naturalisation;
, _ (b) that if he is a citizen of any country, he has renounced the
citizenship of that country in accordance with the law therein in
INDIAN CITIZENSHIP
155
force in that behalf and has notified such renunciation to the Central
Government ;
(c) that he has either resided in India or been in the service of
a Government in India or partly the one and partly the other,
throughout the period of twelve months immediately preceding the
date of the application ;
(d) the during the seven years immediately preceding the said
period of twelve months, he has either resided in India or been in the
service of a Government in India or partly the one and partly the
other, for periods amounting in the aggregate to not less than four
years;
(e) that he is of good character ;
(f) that he has an adequate knowledge of a language specified
in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution; and
(g) that in the event of a certificate of naturalisation being
granted to him, he intends to reside in India or to enter into or con-
tinue in, service under a Government in India or under an inter-
national organisation of which India is a member or under a society,
company or body of persons established in India.
Provided that, if in the opinion of the Central Government, the
applicant is a person who has rendered distinguished service to the
cause of science, philosophy, art, literature, world peace or human
progress generally, it may waive all or any of the conditions speci-
fied above.
By Incorporation of Territory — ^If any territory becomes a part
of India, the Central Government may specify the person who
shall be citizens of India by reason of their connection with that
territory ; and those persons shall be citizens of India as fi’om the
date to be specified in the order.
TERMINATION OF CITIZENSHIP— Indian citizenship can be
terminated by renunciation or termination or deprivation. Any
citizen of India of full age and capacity can terminate his Indian
citizenship by making a declaration to that effect, except during a
time of war. Any citizen of India who has been naturalised in a
foreign country shall cease to be an Indian citizen. The Government
of India can also deprive a naturalised citizen of his citizenship on
ground of disloyalty to the State of India or continued absence from
the country for a period of seven years.
OUR NATIONAL EMBLEMS &
AWARDS
NATIONAL FLAG
The first flag in India was hoisted on Ang’ast 7, 1906. ip
the Parsee Bagan Square, Calcutta. The flag was composed of hori-
zontal stripes of red, yellow and green.
The second flag was hoisted by Madame Cama and her band of
eidled revolutionaries in Paris in 1907. It was siniilar to the first
flag with slight modifications.
The third flag was hoisted during Home Rule Movement in 1917
by Dr. Annie Besant and Tilak. This flag had five red and four
green horizontal stripes and in the left hand top comer (the pole
end) was the Union Jack occupying one-fourth of the space and
seven stars in the centre. There was also a crescent and a star in
one comer.
The Tricolour was first hom at A.I.C.C. meeting at Bezwada in
1921 when a flag was shown b 3 ^ an Andhra youth and improved by
Mahatma Gandhi with the addition of a white stripe and charka.
Though not oflicially accepted by the Congress, it was hoisted on all
Congress occasions. In 1931, when A.I.C.C. met at Karachi, a reso-
lution was passed stressing the need for a national flag. In the
same year a resolution was passed adopting a tricolour flag as our
National Emblem. It had three colours : saffron for courage and
sacrifice, white for truth and peace, green for faith and chivalry. It
also carried a charka in blue on white band. The size was three
lengths by two breadths. On July 22, 1947 with the attainment of
independence, the Constituent Assembly adopted it as free India's
national flag. The colours and their significance remain the same.
The Dharma Chakra of Emperor Asoka was adopted instead of
Charka.
The National Flag of India consists of a horizontal tricolour in
the saffron {Kesari) at the top, white in the middle and dark green
at the bottom, all stripes being equal in breadth. The ratio of the
width of the Flag to its length is two to three. The emblem of the
flag |s an exact reproduction of the wheel on the capital of the Asoka
pillar at Saranath, superimposed on the central band and is as broad
as the white strip. The colour of the emblem is dark blue and the
wheel has 24 spikes.
Use of National Flag —
(1) It should not be dipped to any person or anything The
regimental colour, the State Flag, the organisational or institutional
flag will render this honour when necessary.
.KT or emblem should be placed above the
National Flag or to its right.
OUR NATIONAL EMBLEMS & AWARDS
157
(3) All flags are placed to the left of the National Flag if they
hang in a line, and if they are raised, then the National Flag is raised
highest.
(4) When other flags are flown along with the National Flag
on the same halyard, the latter should be at the peak.
(5) The Flag should not be carried flat or horh.ontally, but
always aloft and free.
(6) When carried in a procession, it must be borne high on the
right shoulder of the standard-bearer and carried in front of the
procession.
(7) When the Flag is displayed from a stalf, projecting hori-
zontally or at an angle from a window sill or a balcony or the front
of a building, the saffron end should be at the top.
(8) Normally the National Flag should be flown on important
Government buildings at the Centre and in the States. Frontier
areas may, however, fly the National Flag at some special points.
(9) The use of the Flag will, however, be unrestricted on certain
special occasions such as the Independence Day, Mahatma Gandhi’s
birthday and during the National week.
NATIONAL EMBLEM
The National Emblem is replica of the capital of the Asokan
pillar at Saranath and is formed of three lions mounted on an abecus
with Dharma Chakra carved in relief in the centre, a bull on the
right and a horse on the left, and the outlines of the Dharma Chakra
on the extreme right and left. The words Satyameva Jay ate mean-
ing ‘truth alone triumphs’ are inscribed in Devanagri script below
the emblem. The lion capital was adopted as National Emblem on
January 26, 1950.
The fact, that the original lion capital, designed between 242 —
232 B.C. was erected by Emperor Asoka to hallow the spot where the
Buddha first initiated his disciples in the eight fold path of salvation,
invests the Emblem with historical and spiritual significance. Carved
out of a single block of sandstone, the original capital was sur-
mounted by a wheel (Chakra).
NA.TIONAL SONGS
The Constituent Assembly of India on the 24th January, 1950
adopted Rabindranath Tagore’s song Jana-gana-mana as the national
anthem of India. It was concurrently decided that Bankim Chandra
Chatterjee’s Bande Mataram shall have equal status.
AWARDS & DISTINCTIONS & TITLES
Bharat Ratna — The award is made for exceptional work for the
advancement of art, literature and science and in recognition of
public service of the highest order. The decoration takes the form
of a pcepal leaf. It is of toned bronze. On the obverse side is
embossed a replica of the Sun below which the words Bharat Ratna
are embossed in Hindi. On the reverse are the State Emblem and the
158
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
motto, also in Hindi. The Emblem, the Sun and the rim are of
platinum.
Padma Viblmsan — The award is made for exceptional and dis-
tinguished service in any field, including service rendered by Govern-
ment servants.
Padma Bhiisan — The Award is made for distinguished service
of a high order in any field, including service rendered by Govern-
ment servants.
Padma Shri — The Award is made for distinguished service in
any field, including service rendered by Government servants.
President’s Police <£ Fire Service Medal, Police Medal.
Krishi Pandits — The title ‘Krishi Pandit’ is given annually by
the Indian Council of Agricultural Research to farmers who have
made notable contribution to the cause of Indian agriculture.
Gopal Ratiia — This title has been instituted in 1956 by the Gov-
ernment of India and will be awarded to the owners of the highest
milk-yielding cows and buffaloes of certain breeds in all India milk-
yield competition. Owners of each breed of cattle besides title of
Gopal Ratna will get cash prizes of Rs. 2,000 each.
DANCES OP INDIA
There are four main schools of dancing in India — Bliarata
Natyam, Kathakali, Kathak and Manipuri. Bharata Natyam per-
haps represents the purest and the oldest form of Indian tradition.
This is always executed by one single dancer usually. The music
consists of a singer or singers and a group of drummers. The sung
music functions like a commentary on the dance.
Kathakali of Malabar is the most dramatic form of Indian
dancing. It literally means ‘story play* and employs many dancers,
usually drawing its themes from the epics.
Kathak school, which is peculiar to North India, shows Muslim
influences. Its elegance and sophistry are derived from the Mughal
Court, but its complicated rhythms are of indigenous origin. The
Kathak dance is rich in two aspects of dancing — nritt, pure dance
abhiiiaya, which employs facial expression and symbolic gestures to
interpret the theme and also covers bhavas (emotions) and
rasas (sentiments).
Manipuri school is essentially lyrical and on the whole lighten
Dances of Manipur are things of disciplined joy and power. They
have rhythmical sublety, slow suspense, speed, lyricism, drama.
Most popular of all Manipuri dances is Rasa-Lila. It depicts scenes
from the life of Sri Krishna in a series of songs and dances.
RANK & PRECEDENCE OF
PERSONS
1. President.
2. Vice-Pre.sident.
3. Prime Minister.
4. Governors, Rajpramukhs,
and Sadar-i-Riyasat, Jammu &
Kashmir, within their respective
charges.
5. Ex-Presidents and ex-Gov-
emors General.
6. Lieutenant Governors with-
in their respective charges.
7. Chief Justice. Speaker of
the Lok Sabha.
8. Cabinet Ministers of the
Union.
9. Holders of Bharat Ratna
Decorations.
10. Ambassadors Extraordi-
nary & Plenipotentiary accredited
to India.
High Commissioners of Comm-
onwealth Governments in India.
11. Rulers of Indian States
with a salute of 17 guns and
above within their States.
12. Governors, Rajpramukhs
and Sadar-i-Riyasat, Jammu &
Kashmir, outside their respective
charges.
13. Lieutenant Governors out-
side their respective charges.
14. Rulers of Indian States
with a salute 17 guns and above
outside their States.
15. Chief Ministers of the
Union (other than the Cabinet
Ministers).
Members of the Planning
Commission.
17. Rulers of Indian States
with a salute of 15 guns or 13
guns.
18. Envoys Extraordinary
and Ministers Plenipotentiary
accredited to India.
19. Chief Commissioners of
Part ‘C’ States having Council
of Ministers within their respec-
tive charges.
20. Chief Ministers of Part
‘C’ States within their respective
States.
21. Judges of the Supreme
Court.
22. Class I Ambassadors of
India and visiting Class I Amba-
ssadors of India.
Foreign Ambassadors visting
India.
Visiting High Commissioners
of India and High Commissioners
of other Commonwealth countries
visiting India.
23. Charges d’ Affaires and
acting High Commissioners a
pied and ad interim.
24. Chiefs of Staff and Com-
manders-in-Chief holding the
rank of full General or equiva-
lent rank.
25. Chief Justices of High
Courts.
Chairmen of Legislative Coun-
cils in Part ‘A' and Part ‘B’
States.
Speakers of Legislative As-
semblies in Part ‘A’ and Part
‘B’ States.
26. Ministers of Part ‘A’ and
Part ‘B’ States.
Deputy Ministers of the Union,
Attorney-General.
Comptroller and Auditor
General.
160
HINDUSTAN YAER-BOOK
Deputy Chairman of the Eajya
Sahha.
Deputy Speaker of the Lok
Sahha.
27. Chief of Staff and Com-
manders-in-Chief holding the
rank of Lieutenant-General or
equivalent rank.
28. Rulers of Indian States
■with a salute of 11 guns or 9
guns.
29. Chairman, Union Public
Service Commission.
Chief Election Commissioner.
30. Puisne Judges of High
Courts.
31. Deputy Ministers of Part
‘A’ States.
Deputy Chairman and Deputy
Speakers of State Legislatures.
32. Members of Parliament.
33. Officers of the rank of full
General or equivalent rank.
Secretary to the President.
Secretaries to the Government
of India and Principal Private
Secretary to the Prime Minister.
Class n and Class III Ambas-
sadors of India.
Commissioner for Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
Officiating Chiefs of Staff and
Commanders-in-Chief holding the
rank of Major-General or equi-
valent rank.
Chief Commissioners of Part
‘C States ha-ving Council of Mi-
nisters outside their respective
charges.
Visiting Ministers Pleninoten-
tiary of India and Foreigrn Minis-
ters Plenipotentiary -visiting
India.
Chairman of the Railway
Board.
Financial Commissioner for
Railways.
Solicitor-General.
Political Officer in Sikkim.
34. Chief Ministers of Part
‘C’ States outside their respec-
tive States.
35. Speakers of Part ‘C’
States.
36. Ministers of Part ‘C’
States.
37. Members of the Railway
Board.
Slinisters of Foreign and Com-
monwealth missions other than
Ministers Plenipotentiary.
Officers of the rank of Lieute-
nant-General or equivalent rank.
38. Chief Commissioners of
the Andaman and Nicobar Is-
lands, Kutch, Tripura and Mani-
pur, -within their respective
charges.
Additional Secretaries to the
Government of India.
Chairman, Tariff Commission.
Chairman, Central Water and
Power Commission.
Vice-Chairman of the Indian
Council of -4.gricultural Research.
Financial .4.d-viser, Ministry of
Finance (Defence).
Chairman Central Board of
Revenue.
*P.S.Os. of the Armed Forces
of the rank of Major-General or
equivalent rank.
39. Chairman of the Public
Service Commission of a State.
Chief Secretaries to Govern-
ments of Part ‘A’ States.
Financial Commissioners.
Members of the Union Public
Service Commission.
* Should a P.S.O. hold the rank of Lieutenant-General, his senio-
ri^ in the Table of Precedence -will continue to remain the same as
laid down for Officers of the rank of Lieutenant-General or equivalent
rank in Article 37 of the Table.
RANK & PRECEDENCE OP PERSONS
161
Rear Admiral Commanding,
Indian Naval Squadron.
Members of a Board of
Revenue.
40. Director-General, Health
Services.
Director-General, Posts and
Telegraphs.
Director, Intelligence Bureau.
General Managers of Railways.
Establishment OflScer to the
•Government of India.
Joint Secretaries to the Gov-
■smment of India (including Jt.
Secretary to the Cabinet).
Class IV Ambassadors of India
and visiting Class IV Ambassa-
■dors of India.
Ofiicers of the rank of Major-
•General or equivalent rank.
Surveyor General.
Members of the Tariff Com-
mission.
Inspectors General of Police in
Part ‘A’ States.
Commissioners of Divisions.
Director-General of Civil Avia-
tion. '
Director-General of Supplies
and Disposals.
Director-General of Ordnance
Factories.
Indian Navy Commodores-in-
■Charge, Naval Ports or Areas.
Commanders of Indian Air
Force commands of the rank of
Air Commodore.
*P.S.Os. of Naval and Air
Headquarters of the ranks of
•Commodore and Air Commodore.
Chief Commissioners of the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands,
Kutch, Tripura and Manipur,
outside their respective charges.
Director-General, All India
Radio.
Military Secretary to the Pre-
sident (so long as he also holds
the post of Director-General,
•Government Hospitality Organi-
sation).
11
Counsellors of Foreign and
Common-wealth missions in India.
Note 1 . — The order in this
Table of Precedence is meant for
State and Ceremonial occasions
and may not be strictly followed
on more informal occasions.
Note 2. — This Table -will not
affect the precedence enjoyed by
Rulers etc., within Indian States
and Part ‘B’ States by ■virtue of
local usage and custom ; nor -will
it affect the local precedence
inter se of Rulers as in force im-
mediately before 15th August,
1947.
Note 3. — Officers in the Table
of Precedence •will take rank in
order of the number of entries,
those included in one number
shall take precedence inter se ac-
cording to the date of entry into
that number.
Note 4. — VTien Members of
Parliament are invited en bloc
to major State function, the
enclosure reserved for them
should be next to the Governors,
Chief Justice, Speaker of the
Lok Sabha, Ambassadors etc.
Note 5. — ^The Director of the
Intelligenec Bureau will take pre-
cedence over Inspectors-General
of Police irrespective of the date
of his en-try into Article 40.
Note 6. — Major-Generals, irres-
pective of their date of entry into
Article 40, rank above Indian
Navy Commodores-in-Charge and
Indian Air Force Commodores.
Note 7. — Chief Secretaries to
Governments of Part ‘A’ States
■will take precedence over Mem-
bers of a Board of Revenue irres-
pective of the date of their entry
into Article 39.
Note 8. — ^For the purposes of
the Table of Precedence New
Delhi and the Red Fort should be
deemed to be outside the State
of Delhi.
162
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Note 9. — The Chairman of
State Legislative Councils shall
rank above the Speakers of Le-
gislative Assemblies in cases
■where they were elected on the
same date.
Note 10. — ^Rulers ■with a higher
gun salute shall take precedence
over Rulers ■with a lower gun
salute. Rulers ■with the same
salute shall take precedence
inter se according to date of
succession.
Note 11. — ^The Cabinet Secr^
tary ■wull, unless otherwise indi-
cated by the issue of special ins-
tructions, take precedence over
Secretaries to the Government of
India irrespective of his date of
appointment to the post.
Note 12. — Members of State
Legislatures who o^wing to their
presence in Delhi happen to be
invited to State functions, should
be assigned rank just after Mem-
bers of Parliament.
The Prime Minister to whom the question of the position to be
assigned to non-officials was referred, has stated : “It should he
remembered always that non-officials, although not included in the
warrant of precedence, can always be given a high place and some-
times a very high place in accordance ■with their general standing.
It is absurd, for instance, to put a great scientist or a famous artiste
or a writer at the bottom of the scale simply because he is not included
in the warrant. There_ could be not hard and fast rule about this
matter and some discretion has to be exercised on particular occasions.
This should be made clear to State Governments as well as of course
at the Centre, Special officers such as the Chairmen of important
Commissions and the like can be treated as non-officials of note. They
need not be included in the warrant and yet they should be given
appropriately high places whenever necessity arises”.
DO YOU KNOW
_ During^ 1955 the total value of foreign books, magazines and
periodicals imported to India was Rs. 105.9 lakhs. The corresponding
value of exports for the same year is Rs. 62.22 lakhs.
♦ 4; «
At present the consumption of footwear in India is one pair per
annum for every two persons in the urban areas and one pair for'
five persons in rural areas.
* *: t;
During 1955 the number of foreign turists who visited India
was 43,645.
* * * *
There are nearly 9,000 murders taking place every year in India.
TRANSPORT AND
COMMUNICATIONS
1. RAILWAYS
RAILWAYS IN INDIA — India has an extensive railway network
reaching all major cities. With over 34,000 route mileage the system
is exceeded in mileage only in the United States and Canada. Trans-
portation requirements are however much lower than in a more indus-
trialised country of the same size, because the majority of the popula-
tion lies in largely self-sufiicient villages. Most of the railways are
owned and operated by the Central Government. Those which are
still privately owned are narrow-gauge feeder lines, are subject to
Government regulation, and are usually dependent upon Government
assistance. The Government lines have in recent years been
reorganised into seven major systems.
Indian railway system is the largest in Asia and it is the single
biggest nationalised undertaking in the country. In inter-regional
traffic, 80 per cent of the goods and 70 per cent of the passenger
traffic are carried by rail. The Capital-at-charge is about Rs. 911
ccores. The railways employ about 10 lakhs of people.
BEGINNING OF RAILWAYS IN INDIA— In his famous
minutes of April 1853, strongly advocating the construction of a net-
work of trunk railway lines, Lord Dalhousie, the Governor General
of India wrote, “Great tracts are teeming with produce they cannot
dispose of, others are scantily hearing what they would carry in
abundance, only if it could be conveyed whither it is needed.”
The first idea of rail-roads in India was conceived in the Madras
Presidency as early as 1831-32 when a proposal to lay flat parallel
rails on a side of an improved road between CaUverypattam and
Caroor, a distance of 150 miles was mooted, with a view to enable
animal-driven vehicles to be drawn thereon. The more regular rail-
way projects, however, date from 1844 when the Board of Directors
of the East India Company sanctioned the construction of one line
from Calcutta to the north-west and another from Bombay to the
east and the north. The first line to be opened was a small section
of 22 miles by the G.I.P. P.ailway between Bombay and Kalyan in
April 1853. The E. I. Railway line between Calcutta and Pandooa
was the second to follow in August 1854 and Madras had the line
upto Arkonam opened in July 1856.
Terms for Opening Railways — ^In the early stage (between 1844
and 1868) the construction of railways in India was entrusted to
British Companies under State ^arantee of a minimum return of
4} p.c. to 6 p.c. on the capital invested. Government provided the
land free of cost but retained the right to purchase the lines after 2.5
164
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
or 50 years on certain terms. By 1869, 4,255 miles ■were constructed
under such terms with a capital outlay of about Rs. 89 crores.
This policy, however, entailed heavy loss to the State, amount-
ing by 1869 to about 1.7 crores and after an unsuccessful attempt
to enlist the co-operation of companies without any guarantee of
return. Government adopted the policy of direct ownership, construc-
tion and management by the State. Between 1869 and 1879 about
2,175 miles of lines were so constructed.
The policy of direct State construction, however, _ did not bear
fruit as expected, specially because the exigencies of time necessita-
ted the diversion of capital resources of the State to other directions
and political and strategic considerations had led to the spending of
large sums on unproductive lines. Between 1874 and 1878 the
country was visited by acute and widespread famines, and the
Famine Commission appointed in 1878 strongly urged the early
extension of the railway net-work. Company construction was
thereafter revived and even for State-owned lines management by
companies was favoured.
In dealing with the guaranteed companies, the Government
exercised as far as found desirable their rights to terminate the
contracts as and when opportunities arose in subsequent years, the
method of making use of this right and the manner of continuing
management of the railways after State acquisition having differed
in different cases. The E.I., S.I., G.I.P., B.B. and C.I., M.S.M., and B.N.
Railways were acquired by the State but allowed to be managed by
the original companies after securing more favourable financial con-
ditions for the State, the E.B., O.R. and Sind Punjab and Delhi lines
were purchased and transferred to State management. The Bengal
Central line was purchased and amalgamated with the E.B. Railway
and the Madras and Indian Midland lines were after acquisition
allowed to be managed by companies rmnning adjoining lines.
New Era Begins — With the beginning of the 20th century a new
era began. Traffic had gro^v^ enormously and the railways had
ceased to be a burden on public exchequer. In 1901, Mr. Robertson,
a Special Commissioner appointed to enquire into the working of the
railways, examined the pros and cons of State vs. Company construc-
tion and management and although no marked superiority in favour
of companies was observed, he advocated the discontinuance of dual
system running side by side and advised the leasing out of all lines
to companies, with or without guarantee.' Public opinion in India
had, however, ceased to remain inarticulate and strong feelings
were entertained against management by English Companies, which
often acted against the best interests of the people and stood in
the way of Indianisation and advancement of Indian trade and in-
dustry. The old policy, shaped between 1880 and 1884 was allowed
to be continued till 1920-21.
In 1921 a Railway Enquiry Committee under the Chairmanship
of Sir William Acworth examined critically the question of State vs.
Company management and advocated State-management.
In 1923 the Indian Legislative Assembly adopted a resolution
advocatmg State management only and it was decided to eliminate
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
165
the system of management by Board of Directors in London as and
when opportunities to terminate the contracts with companies were
available. Accordingly the East Indian Railway was taken over
under direct State management in January 1925 and the G. 1. P.
Railway in July next year and since then all company-managed
lines have been taken over. After independence in 1947, the railway
system has been nationalised. It is now entirely managed by the
State and the system of management has also been thoroughly
remodelled.
RAILWAY COMMITTEES — ^Por the improvement of railway
management and also to settle the State vs. Company management
question, Acworth Committee was appointed in 1921 which made vari-
ous recommendations for the improvement of Indian Railways. Its
main recommendations were : (1) Railways to be managed by the
State instead of Company management. (2) Railway Budget should
be separated from the general budget and that the general revenues
should receive annual contributions from railways. (3) Establish-
ment of Rates Tribunal to adjudicate upon disputes between railways
and the public.
The Acworth Committee laid the foundations of State manage-
ment and State Control of Indian Railways. Its recommendations
constituted the broad basis on which the railway system in India
developed in subsequent years.
The Pope Committee was appointed in 19.32 which inter alia
made many recommendations in regard to the intensive use of
locomotives, coaching stock and machinery. Disposal of unecono-
mical wagons, combining resources between railways, ticketless
travel and methods of increasing earnings.
The Wedgwood Committee in 1936 made the following recom-
mendations : (1) reduction in locomotives and carriage under re-
pairs, (2) amalgamation of workshop for construction of rolling
stock, (31 acceleration of trains, (4) withdrawal of unremunerative
services. (5) greater caution in capital expenditure, (6) a campaign
to root out dishonesty and incivility from amongst railway staff,
(71 development of the commercial departments of railways, (81
building of a General Reserve Fund to serve as an equalisation fund
for payment of interest charges and amortisation of capital.
Indian Railway Enquiry Committee — ^The Committee appointed
by the Government of India published its report in 1948. The main
findings and recommendations are (a) the staff strength in the rail-
ways is on the high side while there has been general deterioration
in the efficiency of workers, (6) in place of present central organi-
sation under which the Railway Board is part of the Secretariat of
the Government of India, the Committee recommended the vesting
of control and managenient of Indian Government Railways in a
Statutory Authority, (c) it is desirable to have in the Finance Branch'
of the Railway Board a separate unit primarily conceimed with ex-
ploring means to improve earnings, (d) no capital outlay should be
incurred other than on strictly financial considerations, except when
a capital expenditure is justified on other important considerations,
(c) an Amortisation Fund should be created (as recommended by
166
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
the Wedgwood Committee) in respect of intangible assets of fte
railways amounting to about Rs. 68 crores, the annual contribution
to the fund being one per cent of gross earnings, (/) the existing
method of making ad hoc contribution to the General Revenues has
to continue until the future position of the railways can be assured
with greater definitions.
Railwajf Stores Enquiry Committee — was set-up under the
Chairmanship of A. D. Shroff to examine the Stores arrangements
on the railways with a view to bringing about improvement and
rationalisation in procurement, issue and holding of stores in 1951.
The Committee recommended that Ministry of Railways should te
responsible for the procurement of specialized Railway Stores. This
recommendation has been accepted. The procurement of specialised
railway stores will be transferred to the Railway Board.
ADMINISTRATION OF RAILWAYS— The responsibility for
overall control and administration of the railways vests in the
Railway Board which was set-up in 1905. The Board consists, after
reorganisation in April 1951, of a Chairman who is an ex-officio
Secretary to the Union Railway Ministry, the Financial Commissioner
and three members.
For the close and constant consultation between the public and
railway authorities, the following committees have been established —
(1) Regional Users’ Consultive Committees, (2) Zonal Railwal Users’
Consultive Committees at the headquarters of each railway Zone and
<3) National Railway Users’ Consultive Council at the Centre.
Divisional System — The essence of the divisional system is
■to provide a unified control of operation and other allied railway ac-
■tivnties over a longer area than that of an average district and to
Test the responsibility for co-ordinating the working of different
departments in the area in an administrative officer called the
Divisional Superintendent, located in the Division. Divisional
system of administration has been introduced in the Central, Southern
and Western Railways. The Central Railway is divided with seven
divisions with headquarters at Secunderabad, Bombay, Bhusaval,
Nagpur, Sholapur, Jabalpur and Jhansi. Southern Railway is divided
into eight divisions : — ^Vijayawada, Hubli, Guntakal, Olovakkot,
Madras, Madurai, Mysore and Tiruchirapalli. Western Railway is
devided into eight divitions with headquarters at Bombay, Baroda,
Kotah, Jaipur, Ajmer, Rajkot, Bhavnagar and Ratlam.
Each Division is under a Divisional Superintendent who ■will
function in his sphere more or less as the General Manager does for
■the entire Zonal railway. He ■will, however, be under the control of
the General Manager. Specialised departments, like stores and work-
shops are excluded from the divisional scheme. These will continue
to be controlled by headquarters direct or hitherto.
RAILWAY FINANCE — ^In 1925, the railway finances were
separated from the general finances and it was decided that the raU-
•ways should contribute to the general revenues according to a fixed
formula. It was decided in December 1949 that during the quinquen-
cium beginning ■with 1950-51, the railways should pay a guaranteed
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
167
-dividend of four per cent on the capital-at-charge at the end of each
penultimate year. The revised Financial Convention after 1955 on-
-wards also prescribes the same rate of payment except that on new
lines a moratorium would be granted during construction and for the
^ve years to follow.
CLASSES OF ACCOMMODATION— From 1st April, 1955, there
are now four classes of accommodation, namely — Air-conditioned,
■first, second and third. There is no class named as inter class.
FREIGHT AND FARE — The fare & freight rates were rationa-
lised in 1948. The rates of passenger fare is on the telescopic basis
'from April 1, 1955 (i.e. rates diminishing with increase in distance
•travelled). Scale of passenger fares from 1st April, 1955 arc
given below.
The rationalised freight structure provides for fifteen
“class rates” for goods and an equal number of wagon-load
scales of rates. The rates reduce with the increase in dis-
tance, The telescopic taper of goods rates was further accentuated in
April 1956, thereby making long distance haulage of goods cheaper
.still. The telescopic taper of goods rates was further accentuated
in April 1955, thereby making long-distance haulage of goods cheaper
still. Goods trafiic now moves along the shortest route and at the
-cheapest-rate.
Class
Vistance in miles
Bates per wji
Air-conditioned
1—300
84 pies
301 and above
32 „
First class . .
1—150
18 „
151—300
16. „
301 and above
16 ..
•■Second Class (Mail or
' Express)
1—150 (Mail /Exp.)
11 »
1 — 150 (Ordinary)
n „
Snd class {ordinary)
161 300
lOi „
(Mail/Exp.)
(Ordinary)
301 and above.
9 „
(Mail Exp.)
9^ „
(Ordinary)
„
Third class
1—160 (Mail/Exp.)
65 „
(Ordinary)
55 „
150—300
6 „
(Mail/Exp.)
(Ordinary)
161—300
5 „
(Mail/Exp.)
6 „
(Ordinary)
301 and above
6 „
(Mail/Exp.)
5 „
(Ordinary)
„
Free allowance of Luggage per Ticket — ^Air-conditioned — 60 seers p
Ust class — 40 seers; 2hd class — 30 seers and Srd class — ^25 seers.
168 ^
HINDUSTAN YEAK-BOOK
RAILWAY LOCOMOTIA’H AND OTHER PRODUCTIONS— In-
ternal production is now able to meet the railway’s normal annual
requirements of rails, wagons and coaches. The Government-
owned Chittaranjan Locomotive Works and the Government-assisted
Tata Locomotive and Engineering Co. Ltd., which have gone into
production are helping to attain self-sufficiency in locomotives also.
The Chittaranjan Works which started production in 1950, have
turned out 424 engines upto Sept. 1956 and over 98 per cent of the
components are now being produced in the country. The Tata Engi-
neering and Locomotive Company which produce metre gauge loco-
motives, had turned out 170 engines upto August 1956. The produc-
tion target of the company is now being increased from 35 to
75 locomotives a year. The Integral Coach-building Factory at
Perambur (Madras), which has gone into production in October 1955,
is expected to turn out in single-shift working 300 to 350 light-weight
integral type all-steel coaches annually. The Government-owned
Hindustan Aircraft Ltd., at Bangalore are producing all-steel third
class passenger coaches.
TRAINING CENTRES AND RESEARCH— Training facilities
for officers in the Engineering and Traffic Departments
are provided in several railway training and technical
institutes. The more important ones are located at
Jamalpur, Gauhati, Chandausi, Bina and Saharanpur. Training
of higher staff for Indian Railways began on 31st January,
1952 when the Training College for Indian Railway Officers was
opened at Baroda. A Railway Testing and Research Centre with
headquarters at Lucknow and two sub-centres at Chittaranjan and
Lonavla were set-up during 1952-53. The Centre tackles those pro-
blems which are peculiar and specific to the railways.
ELECTRIFICATION OF RAILWAYS— The total electrified
route milage on the Indian Railways is 240.24 miles as follows ;
Central Railway (Bombay-Kurla-ICalyan, Poona-Ieatpuri, and Kurla-
Mankhurd) 184.85 miles ; Southern Railway (Madras-Tambaraih)^
18.14 miles ; Western Railway (Bombay-Borivili-Virar) 37.25 miles.
A start has been made during 1954-55 in respect of three schemes
of electrification. These are Eastern Railway : Howrah-Burdwan
main line and Tarakeswar branch line (all services) a length of 88
route miles at an estimated cost of Rs. 11.84 crores. Electrification
of Sealdah Division and Howrah-Burdwan Chord, a length of 276.42
route miles at an estimated cost of Rs. 28.77 crores. Southern Rail-
way : third line between Madras (Egmore and Tambaram), a
length of 8.3' miles at an estimated cost of Rs. 3.50 crores and
Western Railway : up and down through line between Andheri and
Borivili. The work on the line between Bandra and Andheri— 4.5
miles— was completed and opened to traffic on April 16, 1963. The
electrification of the through line of the remaining section between
Andheri-Borivili — 7.5 miles — ^was held up on account of delay in the
receipt of materials from abroad).
RAILWAY WORKSHOPS IN INDIA — ^Each Railway has its
own worlmhops to meet its repair requirements. Given below
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
168 ’
are details of the major -workshops on the different Railways and
the -work on which they are mainly engaged :
Northern Railway : — Carriage and Wagon Shops, Jagadhri — ^for
repairs to broad gauge carriage and wagons ; Loco Shops, Charbagh
(Lucknow) — ^for repairs to broad gauge locomotives ; Carriage-
and Wagon Shops, Alambagh (Lucknow) — ^for repairs to broad gauge-
carriages and wagons ; Loco Carriage and Wagon Shops at Jodhpur
and Bikaner — ^for repairs to metre gauge locomotives, carriages and
wagons.
Eastern Railway : — ^Loco Shops, Jamalpur — ^for repairs to-
broad gauge locomotives. These -workshops have a re-rolling mill
section and a permanent way foundry is an additional feature.
Carriage and Wagon Shops, Lillooah — ^for repairs to broad gauge
carriages and wagons ; Loco Shops, Kanchrapara — for repairs to
broad gauge carriages and wagons.
South Eastern Railway : — Loco, Carriage and Wagon Shops,
Kharagpur — for repairs to broad gauge locomotives, carriages and'
wagons.
Southern Railway : — Loco Shops, Perambur — ^for repairs to broad’
gauge locomotives ; Carriage and Wagon Shops, Perambur — ^for
repairs to broad gauge carriages and wagons ; Loco, Carriage and
Wagon Shops, Golden Rock — for repairs to broad and metre gauge-
locomotives, carriages and wagons and manufacture of spare parts
for running sheds and carriage and wagon depots ; Loco, Carriage
and Wagon Shops, Hubli and Mysore — for repairs to metre gauge
locomotives, carriages and wagons.
Central Railway : — Locomotive Shops, Parel — ^for repairs to-
broad gauge locomotives ; Carriage and 'Wagon Shops, Matun^ —
for repairs to broad gauge carriages and wagons ; Loco, Carriage
and Wagon Shops, Lallaguda — for repairs to broad and metre gauge
locomotives, carriages and wagons ; and Carriage and Wagon Shops,
Jhansi — ^for repairs to broad gauge carriages and wagons.
Western Railway : — Loco Shops. Dohad — for repairs to broad
gauge locomotives ; Carriage and Wagon Shops, Mahalakshmi — ^for
repairs to broad gauge carriages and wagons ; Loco Shops, Ajmer —
for repairs to metre gauge carriages and wagons.
North Eastern Railway ; — hoco, Carriage and Wagon Shops at.
Gorakhpur, Izatnagar and Dibrugarh for repairs to metre gauge loco-
motives, carriages and wagons.
RAILWAY ZONES
The seven sones of the Indian Railways are now as follows —
Route
zone and dates Former Rys, included Head mileage a&
of forming quarters on March
31, 1955
Southern M. & S.M., SJ. & Mysore
Ap-ril 14, 1951 Railways. Madras 6,115.52
Central GJ.P., Nizam’s State, Dhol-
Nov. 6, 1951 pur and Scindia Railways Bombay 5,635.2&
Western B.B. & CJ., Saurashtra,
170 HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Nov. 6, 1951
Cutch, Rajasthan and Jai-
pur Railways and a short
section — ^Marwar-Phu lad
'Northern
April 14, 1952
of the Jodhpur Railways.
Eastern Punjab, Jodhpur,
Bikaner, the three upper
divisions of E. I. Ry. and
a portion of the B.B.C.I.
Bombay
5,613.96
Eastern
Ely.
E. 1 . Ry. (minus the three
Delhi
6,253.26
Aug. 1, 1956
Upper Divisions).
Calcutta
2,321
South-Eastern
Aug. 1, 1955
North-Eastern
B. N. Ry.
0. T. & Patehgarh Dist. of
Calcutta
3,399
April 14, 1952
old B.B.C.I. Ry.
Gorakhpur 4,814.25
Narrow gauge railways owned and operated by private compa-
nies were not included in the reorganisation scheme but under the
Railway Companies (Emergency Provisions) Act,_ 1951, the Central
Government has assumed power to ensure their being operated
efficiently and in public interest.
South-Eastern Railway — ^has the route mileage of 3,399.
The Railway connects the capital cities of three States, viz.,
West Bengal, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh and serves at area
•of 185,600 sq. miles in these states as also in Bihar, Andhra and
Vindhya Pradesh. Connecting the ports of Calcutta and Visakha-
patnam with their vast hinterlands, it serves the rich paddy fields
of West Bengal, the extensive timberlands of Orissa and Madhya
Pradesh, as also the coal and steel industries of Bihar and West
Bengal. The area covered by the railway is rich in deposits of essen-
tial raw materials such as iron ore, copper, coal, manganese, lime,
bauxite and dolomite. Many of the major development projects in
eastern India lie on this railway, such as (1) Hirakud project at
Sambalpur, (2) two steel plants at Rourkela and Bhilai, (3) Hindus-
than Shipyards at Visakhapatnam, (4) oil refinery at Visakhapatnam,
(6) two steel works at Tatanagar and Bumpur.
North-Eastern Railway — serves the northern part of West Bengal
and Assam, northern part of Uttar Pradesh, Northern Bihar. This
line has been formed with the former Oudh and Tirhut Railway and
Assam Railway. This line operates in a well-developed agricultural
region and carries large quantities of sugarcane, tobacco, tea and rice.
Eastern Railway — has a route mileage of 2,321. The railway
serves an area of over 80,000 sq. miles and cover the States of
West Bengal, Bihar and parts of Uttar Pradesh which have a
heavy population density. This Railway is composed of the
five Divisions of the old East Indian Railway east of Moghai-
■sarai, namely Dinapore, Dhanbad (transportation division),
Asansole, Howrah and Sealdah. This last named Division
■was attached to E. I. Ry. after the partition of Bengal Assam Rail-
•way in 1947. Working on the divisional system, the Eastern Railway
■will have its headquarters at Calcutta. The Eastern Ifeilway con-
nects the port of Calcutta with its rich vast hinterland. It provides
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
171
transportation facilities, among others, to the rice and jute producing
areas of West Bengal and Bihar, the coal and steel industries in these
two States, and the mica and iron ore mine of Bihar.
It serves important industries like metallurgical ’and steel manm
facture at Bumpur and Kulti ; chemical fertilizers at Sindri ; and
locomotives at Chittaranjan. TTie transport demands of the various
industries like jute, chemicals, engineering, cement, leather and
textiles, situated in and around Calcutta and at other industrial
points are also met by the Eastern Railway.
Western Railway — Serves Bombay, Rajasthan and Madhya
Pradesh. The line consists of former B. B. C. I. Rail-
way, Saurastra Railway, Rajasthan Railway and Jaipur
Railway. This line serves the great industrial areas of Bombay,
Ahmedabad and Baroda and handles tremendous quantities of cotton.
Central Railway — Serves Bombay, Madhya Pradesh and north-
western part of Madras. The line consists of the former G.I.P.
Railway, Scindhia Railway, Dholpur Railway and Nizam’s State-
Railway.
Southern Railway — On April 14, 1951, the three railway systems,
viz., Madras and Southern Mahratta Railway, South Indian Railway
and Mysore Railway were integrated into a single railway zone — the
Madras, Mysore, Kerala and parts of southern Bombay and Andhra.
Southern Railway. It serves the densely-populated fertile areas of
This railway links the northern and southern portion of India.
Northern Railway — This Railway came into being in 1952 through
the synthesis of the three division of East Indian Railway, a portion
of the Bombay, Baroda and Central India Railway and the whole of the
Eastern Punjab, Jodhpur and Bikaner Railways. This line serves
Punjab, Delhi, northern and eastern Rajasthan and Uttar-Pradesh
opto Banaras,
SOME RAILWAY ORGANISATIONS
Central Standards Office — A separate self-contained organisation
called Central Standard Office, for the conduct of all works connected
with the production of standard design and specifications for all
materials, plant and rolling stock in use on Indian railways was
formed in 1930. Three separate branches of this office deal respec-
tively with mechanical engineering standards, civil engineering
standards and specifications, while a separate research branch, con-
stituted at a later date undertakes civil and mechanical engineering
research.
Indian Railway Conference Association — ^This Association was
first organised in 1871 mainly for the interchange of rolling stock
between broad gauge railways. The present non-official organisa-
tion was inaugurated in 1902 when a formal resolution was passed,
establishing the permanent Conference, independent of Government
with the name of the “Indian Railway Conference.” The Associa-
tion’s main function has been to frame rules for the carriage and in-
terchange of the passenger and goods stock, as well as to regulate
the rates and fares and conditions under which the traffic shall be
172 HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
carried. The Conference is a sort of clearing house for all railways.
Standards Advisory Committee of experts lias heen set up
to introduce standardization in railway working and to remove
wide divergencies regarding the stores nomenclature, servicing and
repairs to rolling stock, methods of training staff etc.
Consultative Committees — In order to afford closer consultation
between the public and the railway administrations at different
levels on matters relating to the service provided by the railway, con-
sultative committees have been established, in place of the advisory
committees —
(1) Regional-Users' Consultative Committees at the regional or
divisional levels ;
(2) Zonal Railway Users’ Consultative Committee at the head-
quarters of each railway zone, and
(3) National Railway Users’ Consultative Committee at the
Centre.
The Railway Users’ Consultative Committees in the regions or
divisions will represent the local users in the territories served by
the railways including agrricultural Interests. The National Railway
Users’ Consultative Committee at the Centre will deal with matters of
all-India importance relating to the services and facilities provided
by the railways, while the zonal committees would deal with similar
matters in regard to the respective zones.
Railway Rates Tribunal — This Tribunal has been established in
1949 in place of Railway Rates Advisory Committee. This Tribunal
acts as a judicial tribunal for the settlement of diputes in connec-
tion with rates. The Tribunal is authorised to entertain complaints
that railway administrations are exercising discrimination, quoting
unreasonable rates, attaching unreasonable conditions to the rates or
are unreasonably refusing to quote a fair station-to-station rate. The
•Wbunal will deal only with freight rates and have mandatory juris-
diction. It consists of a President and two members. To assist the
Tribunal, two panels of assessors are constituted, one representing
trade, industry and agriculture and the other, the other railways.
Central Board of Transport — has been formed in 1947 to deal
with the major problems of transport and policies in the country and
it formulates broad policies. The two main objectives of the Board
are (1) maximum co-ordination of all forms of transport and (21 the
co-ordination of transport planning and its execution with the plans
for agricultural and industnal development. The Board’s objective is
to secure the optimum movement of goods according to priority and
simultaneously relief of the strain on railways by harnessing "other
forms of transport. The Board consists of the Ministers for Trans-
port and Communications and Commerce and Industry and other senior
officers of the Ministries of Finance, Defence, Commerce and Industry,
Home Affairs, Railways and Transport.
Service Commissions — ^There are Railway Service Commissions
in Bombay, Calcutta, Lucknow and Madras.
_ Efficiency Bureau — has been set up whose function mainly is to
investigate problems ha%-ing a bearing on the efficiency of the rail-
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
173
'ways in various facets of working and to suggest ways and means of
securing improvements in efficiency.
TOURIST TRAFFIC — The Ministry of Transport in New Delhi
has a Tourist Division which has four sections. One section deals with
administration, another with tourist traffic matters, a third with
tourist literature and other publicity material and fourth with the
■distribution of it. The country has been divided into four main
regions (Northern, Southern, Eastern and Western and Central India)
for organising tourist traffic. The Bombay region comprises States
■of Bombay, Hyderabad, Madhya Pradesh, Madhya Bharat (Southern
half of Saurashtra and Kutch) and Bhopal ; Delhi those of Kashmir,
Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Vindhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Bharat
(Gwalior and Shivpuri) and Himachal Pradesh ; Under the Madras
region come the States of Madras, Andhra, Travancore-Cochin,
Mysore and Coorg.
The Government of India has also been mindful to the need for
■expansion of tourism abroad. For this reason they have undertaken
to establish Tourist Information Offices abroad for drawing foreign
tourists to India. There is a tourists bureau in New York and
tourist offices in San Francisco, London, Paris and in West Germany.
In order to deal with tourist problems with all their ramifica-
tions, Regional Advisory Committees have been set up to associate
the local and state governments and various agencies that are in
the business, such as Travel Agents, Carriers and Hoteliers. There
is also a Central Tourist Traffic Advisory Committee.
For the growth and expansion of tourist traffic in India, the
government is trying to solve many problems connected with it —
(1) Simplification of travel formalities i.e. standardisation of police
formes and of customs baggage allowances according to interna-
tional agreements, (2) Accomodation — The Ministry of Transport is
keeping a close liaison with the hotel industry, encouraging hoteliers
to provide better amenities and improve standards. The hotel
industry is organised into four regional associations integrated into
All India Hotel Federation, (3) Communications — ^The means of
Gommunications in India are not up-to-date or adequate. There are
places which suffer from lack of even elementary facilities in this
respect, such as Konark in Orissa. Planning Commission has accepted
. that certain roads leading to tourist centres can have claim on the
national budget if they cannot be justified on any other ground.
(4) Transport — ^The transport in India is not also upto the required
standard. Every effort is being made to improve this_ department
of tourism so that the tourists can reach the places of interest with
ease and comport.
Guide books, pamphlets, posters and folders are .being brought
out and travel films made for distribution and exhibition abroad.
Foreign tourists has been increasing at the rate of about 20 per cent
per annum. About 39,330 tourists came to India in 1954.
India has joined the International Union of Official Travel Orga-
nisations which has now set up a Regional Travel Commission for
Asia and the Far East.
174
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
RAILWAY AMENITIES — Greater attention is being paid to-
wards the amenities of third class passengers, for which provisions are
being made every year. For this purpose, the Financial Convention
of 1949 earmarked a sum of Rs. 3 crore annually for five years
beginning with 1951-52, following are the amenities — (1) opening of
new stations, (2) opening of waiting halls and rooms, (3) new
model carriages and fittings, (4) opening of new booking offices and
out-agencies, (5) improved catering arrangements, (6) better sani-
tation, (7) elimination of overcrowding by the introduction of new
trains, such as Janata expresses consisting exclusively of class III
carriages. A new type of Janata corridor train with dining car
has been introduced from 1955. (8) introduction of 3rd class sleep-
ing accommodation, (9) Electrification of stations, (10) Raising of
platforms, (11) Dining cars and retiring room facilities for third
class passengers on long journeys etc. (13) introduction of new
trains to eliminate overcrowding.
RAILWAY AND THE PLAN — ^The target of expenditure on
railway decelopment under the First Five-Year Plan was Rs. 400
crores and the railways have exceeded this by Rs. 32 crores ; of
the total estimated outlay of Rs. 432 crores, net investment amounts
to Rs. 267 crores, the balance representing current depreciation.
In the Second Plan a total outlay of Rs. 1125 crores is provided for,
of which Rs. 900 crores would be net investment ; it provides for
additional capacity of 15 p.c. for passenger traffic and 35 p.c. for
freight traffic. Of the total outlay, the railways would contribute
Rs. 375 crores, comprising Rs. 225 crores by way of provision for
depreciation and, at the level of passenger and freight rate-, prevail-
ing in 1955-56, Rs. 100 crores from revenue surplus, leaving a gap
of Rs. 50 crores to be covered. To meet this shortfall in resources,
freight rates have been raised.
INDIAN RAILWAYS, 1955
Indian Railway systems have been classified as Government and
Non-Government Railways. After the federal financial integration
and regrouping of railways under the Government management, the
other railways represented a small group accounting as on March 31,
1953 for 756 miles. So for statistical purposes, the Indian Railways
have been slassified as (1) Government Railways and (2) Non Govern-
ment Railways, instead of Class I, II & III from the .nancial year
ins-i CO * •
Govt, Railways Route
1. Central
(a) Central
(b) Elichpur-Yeotmal
(c) Pulgaon-Arvi
2. Eastern
Eastern
3. North-Eastern
(a) North-Eastern
mileage Oioned by
5,288 Indian Govt.
118 Branch Line Co.
22
4,733 Indian Govt.
4,729
Managed by
Indian Govt.
Indian Govt.
tJ
*9
ft
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
175
Route mileage
(b) Chaparmukh Silghat 61
(c) Katakhal Lalabazar 23
4. Northern
(a) Northern
6,995
(b) Rupar Nagal Dam
5. Southern
34
(a) Southern
6,837
(b) Tenali-Repalle
22
(c) Cochin Harbour
Extension
4
(d) Alnavar-Dandeli
(e) West of India
19
Portuguese
61
(f) Peralam-Karaikhal
15
(g) Pondicherry
8
(h) Tinnevelly Tiru-
chendur
38
(i) Nanjangud Town
Chamarajnagar
22
6. Western
6,631
Total Govt. I Railways
Non-Govt. Railways
33,582
1. Ahmadpur Katwa
32
2. Arrah Sasaram Light
66
3. Bankura Damodar
River
60
4. Barasat Basirhat Light 62
6. Bengal Provincial
33
G. Dasgbara Jamalpurganj 8
7. Baktiarpur Bihar Light 33
8. Burdwan Katwa S3
Owned by Worked by
Branch Line Co. „
9t 9f
Indian Govt. „
tf tf
99 99
District Board, „
Guntur
Cochin Harbour
Authority
Govt, of Bom. „
99
West of India
Portuguese
Ry. Co. n
French Govt. »
Pondicherry
Ry. Co. w
Dist. Board,
Tinnevelly
District Boards
Mysore &
Mandya »
Indian Govt. • »»
Branch Line Ahraadpur Zat-
Co. via Ry.
Company sub- Arrh Sasaram-
sidised Light Ry. Co.
Branch Line Bankura Damo-
Co. dar River Ry.
Co,
Company sub- Barasat Basir-
sidised hat Lt. Ry. Co..
Unassisted Co. Bengal Prov.
Ry. Co.
Branch Line Dasghara-Ja-
Co. malganj Ry.
District Board, Baktiarpur-
Patna Bihar Light
Railway.
Branch Line Burdwan Katws-
Co, . . By. Co.
176
HINDUSTAN TEAK-BOOK
9.
Dehri Rohtas Light
24
10.
Futwah Islampur
27
IL
Howrah Amta Light
44
A2.
Howrah Sheakhala
Light
20
Company sub- Debri Kobtas
sidised Light Ry. Co.
Branch Line Futwah Islam-
Co. pur Lt. Ry. Co.
Company sub- Howrah Amta
sidised Light Ry. Co.
Company sub- Howrah Shea-
sidised khala Lt. Ry.
Co.
13. Jagadhri Light
14. Kalighat Falta
15. Shahadara (Delhi)
Saharanpur Light
3 Unassisted Co. Jagadhri Light
Ry. Co.
26 Branch Line Kalighat Falta
Co. Ry. Co.
93 Company sub- Saharanpur
sidised Light Rly.
railway reseritb funds
(Crores of Rupees)
Appropriations Witft- Net accre- Closing
drawals tion Balance
Depreciation Reserve Fund
1953-54
33-97
38-02
— 1-05 ,
112-79
1954-55
• •
33-72
45-82
—12-10
100-69
1955-56 (RE)
, ,
48-63
48-57
0-06
100-75
1956-57 (BE)
- •
48-77
45-42
3-35
104-10
Revenue Reserve Fund
1953-54 . . 1-13
1-13
37-18
1954-55
1-18
1-18
38-36
1955-56 (RE)
8-50
—0-02
8-52
46-88
1956-57 (BE)
••
1-54
—
1-54
48-42
Development Fund
1953-54 . . 3-29
9-81
—6-52
20-62
1954-55
9-70
12-78
—3-08
17-54
1955-56 (RE)
2-85
12-32
—9-47
8-07
1956-57 (BE)
23-27
22-17
1-10
9-17
Total
1953-54
38-39
47-83
—9-44
170-59
1954-55
. .
44-60
58-60
—14-00
156-59
1955-56 (RE)
. •
59-98
60-87
—0-89
155-70
1956-57 (BE)
--
73-58
67-59
5-99
161-69
(Report on Currency & Finance, 1955-56).
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
177
RAILWAY FINANCES
(Crores of Rupees)
I.
Capital-at-charge
1954-55
{Actual)
901-58
1955-66 1955-56
{Budget) {Revised)
961-07 973-66
1956-57
{Budget)
1,087-09
II.
Total Receipts
286-81
292-55
314-18
345-05
m.
Total Expenses
242-74
249-34
268-44
282-39
IV.
Net revenue (II-III)
44-06
43-21
45-74
62-66
V.
Dividend to general
Revenue
34-96
36-07
36-16
39-67
VI.
Surplus (ly-V)
9-10
7-14
9-68
22-99
TII.
Appropriation to
(a) Dev. Fund
9-10
2-44
22-99
(b) Rev. Reserve Fund —
7-14
7-14
—
{Report on Currency & Finance, 1955-56).
Mileage of Indian Railways
1853
Mileage
20
1913-14
Mileage
. . 34,656
1949-50
Mileage
. 34,002
1863
. . 2,507
1923-24
. . 38,039
1950-51
, 34,079
1873
. . 5,697
1933-34
. . 42,953
1951-52
. 34,119
1883
. . 10,447
1943-44
. . 40,612
1952-53
. 34,275
1893
. . 18,459
1947-48<'
. . 33,985
1953-54
. 34,406
1903
. . 26,956
1948-49
. . 33,861
1954-55
. 34,705
F’rance
Railway
Mileage of Leading Countries
. . 25,600 Argentina . .
. 26,710
Germany
. . 36,256
Mexico
» • •
. 14,981
-Great Britain
. . 19,151
China (approx.)
. 19,000
U.S.S.R.
. . 57,487
Brazil
. .
. 21,251
Italy
. . 11,383
India
. 34,705
Poland
. . 13,375
Burma
. 1,787
Japan
. . 12,556
Pakistan
. 7,082
•Canada
. . 41,158
S. Africa
. 13,413
U.S.A.
.. 224,816
Australia
. 26,623
Route mileage of Railways per 1000
Route miles per 1000
sq. miles
India . . . , 27 Canada
square miles
Route miles
sq.
per 1000
miles
.. 12
U.S.A
.. 74
France
.. 120
U.K.
. •
.. 204
Japan
• •
.. 87
Route mileage according to population
Route mileage per
100,000 population
India . . . . 9
TJ.S.A . . . . 138
■U.K. . . . . 27
Roiite mileage per
100,000 population
Canada . . . . 272
Prance . . . . 60
Japan . . . . 14
* Following the partition of August 15, 1947.
12
178
HINDUSTAN
YEAR-BOOK
Passenger Coaches on the Indian Line
1938-39
15,553
1951-52
13,150
1948-49 .
11,991
1152-53
13,502
1949-60
12,047
1953-54
- 13,802
1950-51
12,815
1954-55
14,667
Total Passenger Miles in India
Millions
1938-39
17,988
1951-52
39,030
1948-49
37,129
1952-53
36,928
1949-50
38,465
1953-54
37,076
1950-51
41,159
1954-55
38,316
Passenger Earnings
on Indian Railways
{Lakhs of Rupees)
1871
202
1931-32
3,135-
1801
379
1941-42*
3,969
1891
686
1951-52t
11,142
1901
1,007
1952-53
10,183
1911
1,849
1953-54
10,135
1921-22
3,429
1954-55
10,074
Traffic on Indian Railways
{Passengers—
-Thousands)
1871
19,283 1911
3,89,863 1951-62t
12,32,073
1881
63,764 1921-22
5,69,684 1952-53
12,12,090
1891
1,22,855 1931-32
5,05,836 1953-54
12,20,400
1901
1,94,749 1941-42*
6,23,072 1954-55
12,59,150
RAILWAY FACTS
The Indian Railways form the largest rail transport undertaking-
in Asia and the fourth longest railway system in the -world.
* « * • • •
Among the railway in Asia, the Indian Railways are the largest,
the Chinese and the Japanese Railways foUo-wing as the second and
third in points of the route mileage.
* 4 ! * ^ *
There are about 6,000 Railway Stations in India.
• • • • ■ • •
Third class passengers contribute 90 p.c.^of the railway receipts..
The Indian Railways carrying daily about 3,600,000 passengers-
(one per cent of India’s population) in 6,000 trains to or from 6,000
stations.
* Burma Rly. separated in 1937;
t Following Partition of 16th August 1947.
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
179
India has three gauges of railways — ^Broad Gauge (BS'), Metre
Gauge (3' and 3-i"), Narrow Gauge (2' 6" and 2').
» * * * *
Most Indian railway gauges are five feet six inches wide and
they are the broadest in the world.
• « * *
The famous trains of India are the Deccan Queen of the Central
Railway which links Bombay with Poona. It is the fastest short
distance train maintaining for sometime a start to stop speed of 45
miles per hour. Flying Ranee run by Western Railway between
Bombay and Surat is a corridor train in India. Delhi Madras
Grand T7~ank Express runs 1,361 miles and traverses half the sub-
continent of India. Frontier Mail though shorn of its previous
grandeur, provides the shortest and the quickest service between
Bombay and the North.
» » » • *
Indian railways carry about 1300 million passengers per annum,
nearly equivalent to four times of India’s population.
*
Indian Railways carry 80 per cent of the goods trafBc and 70
per cent of the passenger trafBc.
Railway station with smallest letters is “IB’ railway station in
South-Eastern Railway between Jharsuguda and Brajarajnagar in
Orissa.
* » « •
With capital of 1,000 crores of rupees invested by the State, the
Indian Railways are one of the largest enterprises of the world.
« * * « *
Biggest Indian Railway tunnel is the Torsi Tunnel which is
three quarters of a mile long.
*****
Fully vestibuled third class Janata train was introduced from
October 7, 1955 between Delhi and Howrah. Similar trains have
since been introduced on other main trunk routes, viz., Delhi-Madras,
Madras-Howrah and Madras-Bombay.
*****
Old iron bridge in India is the old iron bridge over river Gumti,
Lucknow.
*****
The longest platform in India (2,415 ft.) is at Sonepur.
*****
There are 349 bookstalls on the Indian railways. The Railway-
wise distribution is : Southern 91 ; Central 66, Northern 61 ;
Western 41 ; North-Eastern 40 ; Eastern 29 and South Eastern 21.
*
«
*
*
180
HINDirSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Important Railway Dates
lg 53 — First Indian Railway was opened on 16tli April, 1853
between Bombay and Kalyan, a distance of 13 miles.
1905 — Railway Board came into existance in March 1905.
1925 — First electric train in India ran between Victoria Terminus
(Bombay) and Kurla.
1937 — First air-conditioned coach to run in public service in India
was attached to an Indian train in 1937 between Bombay and Delhi.
1951 — Formal opening of the Chittaranjan Locomotive Works
on 26th Jan. 1951.
19o2 — Railway Staff College at Baroda was opened in Jan._ 1952.
1953 — Indian Railways Centenary Exhibition was opened in New
Delhi and Calcutta on 2nd Oct., 1956.
1956 — First vestibuled Air-conditioned third class express started
between Delhi and Calcutta on 2nd Oct., 1956.
1956 — First All-Indian all-steel integral broad gauge passenger
coach was launched at Perambur (Madras) on 14th August, 1956.
2. ROADS IN INDIA
UTILITY OF ROADS IN INDIA — The importance of roads and
the facilities of transport in a vast country like India can scarcely be
exaggerated. A system of well-kept and well-constructed roads is
essential for country’s economic and cultural progress. The roa^
have also a vital role to play in the defence of India. The effecti-
veness of defence depends on the ability of our armed forces -to con-
centrate at any threatened point within shortest possible time. So
the effectiveness of our defence to a large extent depends on the effi-
ciency of our road system. India’s deficiency in the matter of roads
has contributed very largely to her agricultural, commercial and in-
dustrial backwardness to-day. The most serious defect is the lack of
proper and adequate road communication between villages and
markets. Another aspect of the inadequacy of our road system is
that it is unbalanced. The trunk roads are, for example relatively
more highly developed than the district and village roads. Most of
the rural roads are fair weather roads. With the arrival of the
monsoon, they are turned into mud and pools of dirty water and are
rendered unusable.
India has lagged behind many other countries in the develop-
ment of roads. The total mileage of roads in India is far short of
the country’s requirements. India has 239,137 miles of roads f.c.,
there are 19-6 miles of roads for every 100 square miles. The com-
parable figures for U.S.A., U.K. and Japan are 100, 200, 400 miles
respectively which give an idea as to how far behind we are in this
respect.
SHORT HISTORY OF ROAD PROCESS — The present road sys-
tem IS a superstructure raised on the old Mughal and other roads. Its
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
181
development began about one hundred years ago under the auspkeg
of the Government of India. But Government's entire energy being
directed towards opening of railways, the roads came to be regarded
as of local importance, a fit subject for devolution. The culmination
of the lack of interest was reached in the Government of India Act
of 1919 which transferred the subject to the provinces. The Central
Government ceased to concern itself with road development except
roads of military importance and certain arterial roads in Indian
States, the provinces in their turn placed greater part of road mileage
in the charge of local bodies taking direct responsibility for the
maintenance and construction of only a strictly limited mileage.
But the circumstances changed after the World War I, Motor
transport began to come in the forefront and it became a common
feature on the principal roads throughout the country. The result
was that the road expansion could not keep pace with the increase
of motor traffic and the existing roads began to deteriorate. A
resolution was carried in the Council of State in 1927 for the improve-
ment of road system with the result that a committee of both the
chambers of the Central Legislature was set up under the chairman-
ship of Dr. M. R. Jayakar to investigate and report. The Jayakar
Committee in 1928 reported that onus of road development was pass-
ing beyond the capacity of provincial governments and local bodies,
that it was becoming a matter of national importance, and to that
extent might be a proper charge on central revenues. The Commit-
tee recommended that the Centre should assist co-ordinated develop-
ment by making annual block g:rants to provinces from out of a
Central Road Fund built up by a petrol tax surcharge of two annas
per gallon. The Committee considered that the balances in the Fund
should not be allowed to lapse at the end of each year, as road pro-
gramme was required to be planned and executed over a number of
years and for this purpose continuance of funds should bo
assured. The Jayakar Committee also recommended the setting
up of (i) a separate Road Development Committee in the Central
Government, (ii) a Transport Advisory Committee consisting of the
representatives from Central Government and the Provinces, (tit) a
Central Organisation of Information and Research. A Central Road
Organisation was set up in 1930 and a Transport Advisory Council in
1935. On the recommendation of the Jayakar Committee, also a
Road Conference first met in 1931 to discuss various technical
matters.
ROAD ADMINISTRATION — Road Development is shared by the
Centre and the States, the former being responsible for the National
Highways and certain selected roads of strategic or other importance
and the States for their own state roads and for village roads. A central
Road Fund was created in 1929 from the proceeds of a surcharge on
petrol tax. Out of this fund, block grants were made to the provin-
ces for road-building. In 1947, the Central Government assumed the
responsibility for the construction and maintenance of the “National
highways”. Under the Indian Constitution, national highways have
become Central subjects,' while other roads, namely State highways
182 HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
and district and village roads, are the responsibility of the State
Governments.
CENTRAL ROAD FUND — ^The creation of Central !^ad Fund in
1929 on the recommendation of Jayakar Committee constitutes a mile-
stone in the history of road transport in India. This fund was built
up out of an additional tax of two annas (now 2i annas) a gallon on
motor spirit. The Road Fund is administered by the Central Govern-
ment with the advice of a standing committee of the Central Legis-
lature. Part of the fund — one sixth — ^was to be reserved for central
administration, research, intelligence and grants for undertakings of
Special or all*lndia importance. The balance of the fund is for allo-
cation to the provinces and States according to the consumption of
petrol in each administrative unit. Block grants to the provinces
from the fund is intended to augment principal allotments for road
development. The Central Road Fund continues to provide an im-
portant source for financing road development and research activities.
It now provides about Rs. 45 crore annually for the development of
roads other than national highways.
Although the fund is still relatively small compared with the
overall expenditure on road development throughout India, the
achievements of the Fund are remarkable. No fewer than 382 new
bridges and causeways have been built over the country since the
Fund was created and some 1,2B0 miles of modern surfaced roads.
1,600 miles of fair-weather roads and 2,200 miles of road recondition-
ing completed upto 1950. A part of the Fund (now one-fifth) has
been reserved for works of special all-India importance, the
balance being allocated to the States for approved works,
NAGPUR PLAN — In December, 1943, a Conference of Chief En-
gineers was convened by the Government of India at the instance of
the Indian Road Congress. This conference is an important land-
mark in the history of Indian roads so far as the road development
in India is concerned. This conference drew np a ten-year plan of
road development which is known as Nagpur Plan, The Nagpur
Plan called for an increase of road mileage from 265,000 to 400,000
and an improvement of the existing roads. The Plan visualised
the growth of a network of road communications at a cost of Rs. 372
crore_ within ten years. The programme however has had to be
drastically reduced owing to a shortage of money, material and
trained personnel.
The Conference classified roads under the following heads —
National Highways, Provincial or State Highways, Major District
Roads, Minor District Roads and Village Roads, National Highways
is to be the frame-work for the country’s road system. The National
Highways will connect capitals of provinces and States, ports and
highways and constitute the main arteries of communication in
tte country. They will include roads of strategic importance.
The Provincial or State Highways will be the main trunk roads of
a province or state. Districts Roads will connect areas of production
and markets with either a highway or a railway. • They will also
form the main links between headquarters of neighbouring districts.
\
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
183
Minor District Roads and Village Roads -will mostly meet the re-
quirements of rural population, they connect villages and group ol
^ages -with one another and with nearest district road or river ghat.
Nagpur plan recommends the assumption hy the Central Govern-
ment of complete financial liability covering both fresh development
and annual maintenance for roads designated as National Highways.
These are to be administered by an impartial Road Board. With
effect from 1st April, 1947 complete financial liability for the
construction and maintenance of every road which is classified as a
National Highway has been undertaken by the Government of India.
Proposed National Highway routes generally follow the existing
trunk roads which are already largely surfaced. The total mileage
of National Highways is about 13,800. These include Grand Trunk
Road from Calcutta to Amritsar via Banaras, Kanpur, Agra and
Delhi ; Agro-Bombay Road ; Bombay-Bangalore-Madras Road ;
Madras-Calcutta Road ; Calcutta-Nagpur-Bombay Road ; Banaras-
Nagpur-Hyderabad-Kumool-Bangalore-Cape Comorin Road ; Delhi-
Ahmedabad-Bombay Road ; road from Ahmedabad to Kandia Port
with a branch road to Porbandar ; Hindustan-Tibet road from
Ambala to Tibet border via Simla ; road from Delhi to Lucknow,
Gorakhpur and Muzaffarpur with a branch road to the Nepal border ;
Assam Access road ; Assam Trunk Road on the south bank of the
Brahmaputra and the road branching off from the Assam Trunk road
towards the Burma border through the State of Manipur.
INDIAN ROADS CONGRESS— The Central Government took
steps to promote the creation of a semi-official body known as Indian
Roads Congress in 1934. The membership of the body is open to qua-
lified engineers dealing with roads. The Roads Congress is designed
to provide a forum for the regular pooling of experience and ideas on
all matters affecting the construction and maintenance of roads, to
recommend standard specifications, and to provide a platform for, the
expression of professional opinion on matters relating to road i en-
gineering, including such questions as those of organisation and
administration.
The most important contribution of Indian Roads Congress to
the 'science of road engineering in India, besides the study of roads
from various aspects, is the "standard specifications and Code of
Practice for Road Bridges in India” which has been accorded general
acceptance throughout India.
When the highway engineers got busy to complete the projects
and were ready with their blueprints to start work, a sudden set-
back came in the shape of the partition of India which dislocated all
transport and various organisations concerned with the procurement
of road materials. The financial stringency of the Government of
India compelled the progress to slow down. As a result, in the
period of three years from 1947, not even one hundredth part of' the
Nagpur target of building and improving roads could be completed.
GOVERNMENT ORGANISATIONS— At the Centre, the Govern-
ment have built up the Central Roads Organisation under the Con-
184
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
suiting Engineer to the Government of India (Eoads). The Eoafe
Organisation activities are not confined to National Highways, it
tackles a host of other problems concerning road development in
general, grants to State Governments, for development of roads other
than National Highways, road research, road statistics, hulk pro-
curement of machinery and overseas training of road engineers.
, RESEARCH AND TECHNICAL ACTIVITIES AND TRAINTNG
The Central Designs Office of the Road Organisation deals with items,
such as, type designs for route marking for the _ national high-
ways and for furlong and boundary stones, principles to he fol-
lowed in the erection of advertisement boards on road-sides, form of
recording data on bridges, etc.
Central Road Research Institute has been started at Okhla in
Delhi in July 16, 1952 for the research on road engineering_ in its
various aspects and construction and maintenance of all kinds of
roads. Technical advice is also given to State Governments on vari-
ous problems concerning road works.
Facilities for acquiring advanced practical training in modem
methods of highway and bridge engineering are now being provided
tmder various Schemes, such as under Commonwealth Technical Co-
operation Scheme, Point-Four Aid Programme. The Central Roads
Organisation also imparts training to en^eers from State Govern-
ments in modem methods of road and bridge designs.
Road Mileage in Various Countries in Relation to Area and Population
India
U. S. A. (1940)
U. K. (1939)
France (1939)
Mileage of Mileage of Total mileage
motorable roads unmotorable roads of roads
181,406 57,575
. . 1,000,000 2,009,000
160,120 19,170
238J)81
3,009,000
179,290
405,028
Indian Union’s Road Development Plan
Existing
Nagpur plan
Total Road mileage (1943)
239,081
385,226
Motorable road mileage (1943)
181,406
289,855
Total road mileage per million persons
Motorable road mileage per million
749-89
1,208-18
persons
.Total road mileage per 1,000 sq. miles
668-99
909-14
of area
Motorable road mileage per 1,000 sq.
196-45
316-53
miles of area
149-06
238-17
■' ' {From Govt, of India ^pamphlet “Our Roads”)
transpoet and communications
18&
Extra Municipal Roads in India, 1948
Metalled
Bitu- Con- Water- 0
minus crete bound jv
Un-me- Grand-
macadam (Surfaced)
India (excluding
the former In-
dian States)^
Former Indian
States
9,036
1,675
652
111
54,436
24,634
62,124
25,984
10,711
763
79,070
88,108
3.
ROAD TRANSPORT
The Constitution empowers the Central * “Ho
on the principles of motor vehicles te^^tion.-^ut the power to le^
taxes on motor vehicles vests in the States. Motor veh^ India
playing an important part in the road transport of India
and are slowly replacing bullock-cart. It Hnded
known before World War I, but soon after that war ^ded^
public transport services rapidly sprang “P’ . , for con-
Vehicles Act of 1939 was a big step towards ci eating for c^^^^
dition enabling motor transport to India The
Direct taxation of motor vehicles is a state subject suffers
two main disabilities from which the i«st°%transport in Indm suttere
are heavy taxation and the threat of fstionalisation. inree
agencies levy taxes on motor transport, viz, the ^s^Hased on any
and the Local Bodies. Further the taxes are not based ^n^any
common policy but only on the exigencies of • - jufjes
taxes are import duties on cars etc., and customs and excise
on motor spirit. The present duty of Rs. 0-15-9 per anjr
spirit is the heaviest ad valorem duty ,?vp'^Hid and diamonds,
commodity including the most luxurious c*’®® l-j^it and a motor-
The States levy tivo taxes, a sales tax o" “’^fPHocal taxel are
vehicle tax, both varying from state transport in this
octroi, transit fees and wheel tax-. The motor transport m_r
country has been solely developed by ^nd their spare
estimated that the value of vehicles in circulation and tneir sp
parts is about Rs. 300 crores. of-tP ic divided into two
Under Indian Motor Vehicles Act, e^ch State is dmd^ea^^^
or more regions with a Regional . A,,4.i,(,j.jt;y there is in
region. To co-ordinate the work p„„t, state. The Act
addition a Provincial Transport ' f motor vehicles in
has also provided for compulsory insurance
respect of third partie^ Act 1950, statutory
Under the Road Transport basis by the
transport corporations are being onHators. The State-
State Governments, railways and P ort. State operated)
operated services mainly provide passenger t p
services exist in 21 out of 28 States in Indi . ^
186
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
Motor, VeMcles (Amendment) Act to amend the Act of 1939 tos
passed in i95G. The Act provides for the implimentation of the motor
transport reorganisation schemes of the State Governments and
several other measures connected -with the planned development of
motor transport in the country. The Act nill facilitate the devdqp-
ment of motor transport generally in the country to meet the additio-
nal demand on transport created by the large-scale development of in-
/dustries. The Act contains the provitions for the nationalisation of
motor transport service. It also sects to remove the defects of the
old Act. The set provides for the establishment of Inter-State Trans-
port Commission which would be appointed by the Central Government
There is also provision for the payment of compensation to private
■operators whose transport undertakings are nationalised before the
•expiry of their permits.
Nationalisation of Transport — About all the major States of
India have accepted nationalisation of bus services as a basic policy
and many have reached a stage where they have nearly taken over
the entire private bus transport in their area with a view to ensur-
ing autonomy and efficient administration. But in consultation with
the Ministry of Transport, the Planning Commission has advised the
State Governments to defer the nationalisation of goods transport
■imtil the end of Second Plan and to nationalise the passenger trans-
port service according to a phased programme.
Central Board of Transport — -was set up in Nov. 1947 to con-
aider major transport problems and policies. It tries to achieve
the maximum co-ordination between all forms of transport and
to ensure that the development of transport conforms to the
n^cultural and industrial plans of the country. The Board has Mi-
nister of Transport as Chairman.
ROPEWAYS — ^Ropeways are used in India in areas of Klly and
broken country where valleys and streams abound and gradients are
steep and where other forms of communication are primitive or non-
■existent. These conditions obtain in the foothills of the Himalayas
and in some parts of South India. In India the use of ropeways is
confined to "the movement of materials and merchandise. The
following are_ the Ropeways operating in India at present — (1)
Darjeeling-Bifatibari mono-cahle ropeway which is five miles long
with one span of 6,000 ft. (2) Zlono-cabJe ropeway at Kalimpong
which climbs 3,400 ft. in its lengft. Both these ropeways are re-
garded as extensions to railway system. (3) Cherra Chatak Rope-
■ways at Cherrapunji in Assam. (4) Armamalai Ropeway in South
India serves tea and coffee on the 5,000 feet high plateau.
Apart from these several purposes, public or semi-public appli-
■cations, ropeways transport is extensively used in the tea planting
districts. It is also found in coal-mining areas, mainly in Bihar and
Hrngal where it provides a particularly economical method of
•transporting waste to spoil' dumps. It is used in the manufacture
■of cement and the working of quarries, mines, sand, gravel and day
pits. Ropeways are used elsewhere in civil engineering for large
'Constructions, such as masonry dams and bridges. There are
•approximately 100 ropeways operating in India today.
TKANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
187
Total Nnmber of Motor Vehicles, 1953
Motor cycles
Private cars
Taxi cabs_
Buses (Diesel)
Buses (Others)
29,124
156,154
13,261
3,524
, 35,925
Goods Vehicles (Diesel) 1,561
Do (Others, .. 88,514
Other Vehicles (Diesel) 402
(Others) 4,754
Grand Total
333,219
i.
Progress under Five-Year Plan during 1st two years
mtional Highways ejection ^19^1-5^
(a) New Hoads , .
(b) Improvement of existing
640
roads
(c) Bridges
. Selected Roads
750
17
140
1,500
20 *
233
3,000
40
not fixed
•during third year
3. INLAND WATER TRANSPORT
From ancient times, the trade and ^
has been facilitated by the on alone the
History records evidence of a imnortance
rivers and canals of India from the -f \hp rail-
of waterways gradually diminished with the withdrawn
ways with the result that steamer service was gradually witnarawn
and country boat traffic also decreased. ic Tnninlv con-
At present inland water transport in India is maiffiy c^on
fined to the States of Assam, West Bengal, I affordin''
Madras, Andhra and Kerala. The total drafts of
perennial navigation to steamers and county g qoq
2 ft. to 6 ft. is estimated to be about 5,7^50 miles. Of tos total W
miles represent navigable rivers and the pst 1200 miles
waters of the Malabar coast. The ™
of the Ganga river system, 920 miles of riveS in
system, 150 miles of the Hooghly nver, and Baitarani
West Bengal, 190 miles of the htahanadi, , co rniles of the
rivers of Orissa, 288 miles of the Godavan nver and 52 mUes^^^n_
Krishna river. Of this total about 1,600 miles of t country
putra river systems are navigable by steamers ot rainy season,
boats only. Except for about ^o months du g putna
when the Bhagirathi is navigable, steamers fr which means
ply through the Sunderbans and^ast „ between Calcutta
a detour of about 450 miles. ^ The steamer ser^w b^een ^
and Dibrugarh also passes thr^gh ^^JSJfta tjadoraters comprise
The 2,750 miles of fp/”f thi Sone Canal, 287,'
107 miles of the Ganga canals, 204 "y^Orissa canals, 9S
miles of West Bengal canals, 170 miles ot unssa
188
HINDUSTAN THAE-BOOK
miles of the Godavari Delta canals, 420 miles of the Erishna Belts,
canals, 73 miles of the Knmool-Cnddapah Canal, 258 miles of the
Buckingham Canal, 33 miles of the Vedaranniyam Canal and ahont
700 miles of vrest coast canals and backwaters. The West Coast
canals consist of estensive streches of backwaters with ariindal
canals joining them.
Steamer trafdc on the Ganga and Brahmapntra is of the order of
625 million ton-miles a year. Conntry-boat traSc on these rivers is
probably twice as much.
The new multipurpose river valley projects include schemes for
navigation channels. D.V.C. for instance, envisages a channel
from Calcutta to Eaniganj coal fields which is under construction;
Karkrapar Project in Bombay will provide navigable channels from
the sea to Kakrapar Dam and 50 miles further inland ; and the Hira-
kud Project will make the Mahanadi navigable for the last 300 mfies
down the sea.
As things stand, the railways and road services are unable to-
cope with the transport requirements of the country. These tran^
port requirements will assume large proportion, with the rapid
industrial development in the second and secceeding Plans. A
beginning has already been made with the constitution of the-
Ganga Brahmaputra TTofcr Transport- Board in 1952 by the Govern-
ment of India. This Board has been charged rrith the responsibility
of impro-ring the Ganga-Brahmaputra river systems for navigatioa
and to e3:tend it as far as possible. This Board has programmed to-
run pDot projects on the Ganga and Brahmaputra to try to improve-
types of boats and the latest methods of towing.
The Board is under the control of the Cent^ Iilinistry of Trans-
port. The functions of the Board are the development of water
transport, the improvement of navigable facilities, the handfing
of admiidstrative problems such as those arising out of registration
and licensing, the fixing of passenger and freight rates and the ad-
ministration of a pilot project for to-wing counriy craft -with shallow
draught tugs. Plans are now afoot for starting'a pilot project -with
ui>-to-date craft for to-wing barges on the shallow stretches of upper
Ganga between Patna and Allahabad.
Slaster Plan for the Development of Inland Water Transport —
The Central Water and Power Commission of the Government _ of
India is understood to have dia-wn up a master plan for developing
inland waterways in the conntry in order to pro-ride adeqna^
and cheap transport in a developing economy. The plan en-ri-
sages the Uniting of Calcutta Port on the east with Cochin on the-
west via Cuttack and Madras by a network of canals connecting
some of the minor rivers of Orissa, Andhra and Madras, a continnons
-waterway from Western India to northern and north-east India via-
Central India and a continnons -waterway from the west coast to-
the east coast through the hinterlands of Bombay, Madhya Pradesh
and Andhra Pradesh.
Administration of Inland Waterways — In our Constitution,
*national -waterways’ have been included in the Union List, while in-
land na-rigation with respect -to mechamcally-propelled vessris ap-
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
189
years in the Concurrent List. The Central Water and Power
'Commission is the departmental body specifically responsible
:for surveys, planning and development of water transport. In-
land Steam Vessels Act of 1947 as amended in 1951 provides com-
pulsory registration of all inland steam vessels. State Governments
have been asked to consider the feasibility of registration of dumb
■craft including country boats.
Government has set-up a Ganga Brahmaputra Water Transport
Board which will co-ordinate and stimulate the navigational activities
•of the States of U.P., Bihar, West Bengal and Assam situated on
this river system.
IMPORTANT WATERWAY PROJECTS
(i) Revival of navigation of the Ganga river upto Allahabad
-and the Ghagra river upto Bahramghat and development of naviga-
tion in the Yamuna River in Uttar Pradesh.
(ii) Development of navigation on the Gandak river and
•development of Son river after the construction of the Riband Dam
(Bihar).
(iii) The construction of a navigation canal from Durgapur to
Hooghly under Damodar Valley Project, to connect the coal fields
•of West Bengal and Bihar with the Port of Calcutta and resuscita-
tion of the Bhagirathi route affording direct and shorter connection
with Calcutta Port by the construction of barrage on the Ganga
■which is still under consideration of Government of India.
(iv) The Mahanadi Valley Project provides for navigation on
the Mahanadi river in Orissa upto 200 miles from the Sea and con-
necting the hinterland with Paradip, 10 miles up the Mahanadi from
its infall into the sea where it is proposed to construct a port and
model studies in this connection are now in progress in Hydraulic
Research Station, Poona.
(v) The various tributaries of the Brahmaputra offer great
:scope for development of navigation in Assam.
(vi) Possibilities of navigation on the Narmada river in Madhya
Pradesh have to be examined when dealing with the Narmada Valley
'Project.
(vii) The proposed works on the Godavari, the Krishna,^ the
iPranhita and the Wain Ganga will also provide navigation facilities.
4. CIVIL AVIATION IN INDIA
HISTORY OF CIVIL AVIATION— Human flight began in India
'by balloon, when Mr. Joseph Lynn took off fro™ i-nn ’ r t
•Gardens Bombay in 1877 and rose to a height of 7,500 feet.
Ey 1911, however, army officers were making demonstration fights in
-■a “power driven” aeroplane ; and in the same year the world s first
‘“air mail” was flown from Allahabad to Naini Junction — a distance
•of six miles, by a French pilot M. Picqet. Lord Lloyd, then Goi^rnor
•of Bombay, organised the first regular airmail service in 1920, but it
wvas not until 1926 that the pace of development accelerated.
190
HINDUSTAN TEAB-BOOH
The Tilans of Imperial Ainvaj^ for a service between Englana
and India during that year Indian civil aviation a powenri
stimolns. A Department of Civil Aviation was established to regs-
late international and internal services in 1927 ; aerodromes w^
constructed, and flying clubs started encouraging public interest la
t>iig new form of transnort. "With the first scheduled flights betweea
Dondon and Karachi, in 1929 India joined other countries on the new
air maps of the world.
In the following fifteen years, from 1930 to the end of norli
War n in 1945, Infian Civil aviation expanded, until the fmtheri
comers of the sub-continent were linked by air. Foremost in this
growth were Tata Airlines Ltd. and Indian National Airways, follow-
ed by many other private companies almost all of which benefited ia
experience,* equipment and finance by their military service during
the war years. The war also brought about tremendous advances
in other aspects of air transport : hundreds of new aerodromes were
built. Sight aud communications techniques were improved, and the
advantages of flying as a safe, efficient and comfortable form of
transport were firmly established. _
pSum 1945, passenger and freight trame steadily increased over
the air routes of the eleven companies then licensed to operate.
But costs also rose steeply, and while several lines eventually dosed
down, the Government found it necessary to provide very conside-
rable indirect subsidies to the remainder, A committee of enquiry
was appointed in 1950 presided over by the late Idr. ^jadhyaksha to
examine the working of the air lines and make recommendatiDn
regarding putting the Indian civil aviation on a stable basis. The
Committee recommended (1) number of operating units in the
country was much greater than that required for the volume of busi-
ness, (2) cost of most of the companies were excessive. (3) subject to
reorganisation and reduction of costs, operation of air lines by urivate
enterprise^ might be allowed to continue.
The financial position of the companies, however continued to
deteriorate. The companies were not in a position to raise
funds in open market and suggested most of the finance should come
from the Government in the form of loans on a nominal rate
of interest without any early prospects of repayment. Taking all
these into consideration, the Government came to 'the conclusion that
all the units of operation should be owned by the State. The
result was the passing of the Air Corporation Act, 1953 wMch came
into force on the 2Sth May, 1953. It provided for the setting up of
two Corporations one for the operation of long distance and another
for domestic services and services to neighbouring countries. The
two Coiporations took over the existing cmpanies as going con-
cerns with their assets and liabilities in accordance with the provi-
sions of the Act.
The main Provisions of the Air Corporation Act — (l)An Air
Transport Council to be established to tender advice on matters of
public importance. (2) An Advisory Cnmrr.ittcc for each corporation
to be established for the purpose of maintaining liaision with the pub-
lic. (3) There will be Labour Relations Committee for each corpora-
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
191
tion consisting of representatives of the corporation and of employees.
This committee will give advise to the Corporation relating to labour.
(4) Finally each Corporation was to act so far as may be on bnsi-
"'^'^Thl^SJ^co-operations, viz., Indian “^^^unT wif
India International came into formal existence on the 15th June, 195d.
On the 1st August, 1953 Air-India International took over tne
business of the Air-India International Ltd., while
lines Corporation took over as a going concero, the
and business of eight units, namely, I
Aviation Ltd., Kalinga Airlines, Bharat Airways
Air Services of India Ltd., Deccan Airways Ltd., and Indian National
^^The Corporation had appointed Resident
tioned at the appropriate Line offices. The ^ re^on one
had also been divided into two Regions, and in each s^h region o e
Representative had senior charge of all other Lines, | ^ tjgjj
now been replaced by a fully integrated De”
in its entirety is controlled by a strong centre— each Head of a
partment being in charge of the relevant section at the ^ones.
The Indian Airlines Corporation consists of » ^
members appointed by the Government. The ^ IjusJ,
tutory body thoroughly independent to manage its day-to-day busi
ness. The Government, however, has the nrogram-
to it from time to time. It_ further receive them annual program
mes of operations and financial estimates,
poration are audited by the Compteoller » Parliament
are then placed by Government before bo^ Houses of
together with appropriate audit reports, ^^en hv^the
is required by the Corporations, .it has to be P^ovnied
Central Government or by authorised borrowing, imder issue of b ,
debentures, debenture stock or other security. ^ ^ ^ ^
PROGRESS OF CIVIL AVIATION— Progress of ciidl avi^on
in India can be summed up as follows Air Seizes -
introduced on various routes interlinking .eveiy wg and tow of
note and connecting India with many foreign coun ri s. g
mail services connecting the principal cities of India p-tahlish
introduced. Steady progress has been maintained in the establish
ment of Indian air services to dista^ lands. Our air h^s .^P ^
to Aden, Bangkok, Cairo, Djakarta, Dusseldorf,
dahar, London, Nairobi, Paris, Rome, S'agapor^Hongkon^Tokio and
Australia as well as to our neighbourmg countaes
Nepal and Pakistan. Air traffic control ser^ces, navigataonal aids
and to ground and point to point communication haw been provided
at various aerodromes. A network of radio beacons, radio
radio direct-finding stations are now available to all ’^^10
tant aerodromes, the instrument landing ^ystein is also avafiable ta
help aircraft in safe approach and landing pnng had weather
Aeronautical radio facilities have been brought ® jP nero-
the number of such facilities lytodate is BSO.
dromes are controlled and operated by the Civil Aviati p
192
HINDUSTAN yEAE-BOOK
x)i the Governmeiit of India. A Civil Aviation Training Centre has
been established at Allahabad where pilots, aircraft maintenance
engineers, aerodrome officers, control operators, radio officers and
•technicians are trained.
ORGANISATION OF CIVIL AVIATION — ^The civil aviation in
India is placed in the charge of a Director-General assisted by Deputy
Directors General and the functions of the Department are distributed
«mong several directorates, each responsible for several branches
•of ci-^ aviation activity. The Civil Aviation Department is at
present attached to the Ministry of Communications which controls
-the Posts and Telegraphs Department which utilise air transport
Tor the carriage of mails. Indian Air Force is in the Ministry of
Defence but Civil Aviation is not entirely independent of military
aviation. In order to co-ordinate policy with respect to civil and
milita^ aviation and to maintain the necessary liaison, a Standing
■Committee has been constituted comprising officers of the Ministries
•of Defence and Communication who meet as necessary for the sup-
plement of important questions of policy.
The Director General of Civil Aviation is the administrative
^authority for controlling all civil aviation acti'vities in India.
AVIATION TRAINING AND FLYING CLUBS— To meet the
meeds of the country for trained technical personnel the Government
-of India is running the Civil Aviation Training Centre at Allahabad
•which provides courses in flying, aircraft maintenance engi-
meering, air traffic control, aeronautical telecommunications and sir
-navigation. This Training Centre at Allahabad comprises the follow-
ing four wings — (1) Plying Schools (2) Aerodrome officers’ Training
School (3) Engineering School (4) Communication School. In addi-
tion a Repair and Overhaul Organisation is also attached to the
Centre for carrying out repairs and overhaul of the Central aircraft.
Twelve subsidized flying clubs, with headquarters at Delhi, Bangalore,
Bhubaneshwar, Bombay, Jullundur, Luchnow, Madras, Nagrpur, Patna,
Barrackpore, Jaipur and Indore have been subsidized by the Govern-
ment of India. These Clubs trains ‘A’ and ‘B’ licence pilots. Two
gliding clubs, the Indian Gliding Association, Poona and
the Delhi Gliding Club, New Delhi, are also subsidized by the Govern-
ment.
_ AERODROMES IN INDIA — ^The total number of aerodromes
maintained by the Civil Aviation Department at the end of 1955 was
81 — of these three are international air ports — Bombay (Santa Cruz),
•Calcutta (Dnm Diim) and Delhi (Palam). The following aerodromes
have been declared customs aerodromes — Agartala, Ahmedabad,
Patna, Bombay (Santa Cruz), Calcutta (Dum Dum), Delhi (Palam),
Delhi (Safdarganj), Madras (St. Thomas Mount), Tirucbirapalli,
•Jodhpur, Bhuj and Amritsar,
AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL— As a member of the International
• Civil Aviation Organisation, India has to meet the standards laid down
by that organisation in respect of aerodrome equipment and air
-teffic control facilities. So _ Air Traffic Control Organisation has
I been established for the maintenance of air traffic control services
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
193
for international aircraft landing and passing through the country as
well as internal air services. The Air TrafiBc Control Organisation
is responsible for the safety and control of aircraft in the air and
on the ^ound. For this purpose the country has been divided into
four regions with area control centres at Delhi, Calcutta, Bombay and
Madras.
THE FLEET — ^Indian Airlines and Air Indian International have
a large fleet of aircraft consisting Dakotas (twin engined), Skymas-
ters (four-engined). Vikings (twin engined), Super-Constellations,
two Comets, four-engined Viscounts and Herons etc. The number
of aircraft holding currents certificates of registration at the end of
Dec. 1955 was 547, of which 210 held current certificates of air-
worthiness. During 1955, 18 new aircraft were registered.
NIGHT MAIL— Mention must be made of Indian Airlines’ opera-
tion of the unique Night Airmail system. Every night four lAC
aircraft fly between Bombay and Nagpur, Madras and Nagpur, Cal-
cutta and Nagpur, and Delhi and Nagpur. Letters, packets and par-
cels are re-distributed at Nagpur, then flown back to the four main
cities. For no extra charge, the Indian people thus have the fastest
possible long distance postal service to all points in the country. And
to make full use of these aircraft, passengers can “fly with the
mails”, as it were, at specially reduced rates.
INTERNAL AIRLINE ROUTES — Frequent air services are
available — (1) Along the two coasts : From Colombo through Madras-
Visakhapatnam-Bhubaneswar to Calcutta in the east ; and from
Trivandrum through Cochin-Mangalore-Bombay to Jamnagar, Bhuj
etc., on the west. (2) Through the interior : Linking Madras and
Bombay with Bangalore, Hyderabad and Poona ; Bombay and Cal-
cutta with Banaras, Lucknow and Nag^pur. (3) In the far north
from Delhi to Srinagar. (4) In the east between Calcutta and
Imphal and other points in Assam.
Other Indian Airlines routes bring country’s nearest neighbours
within a few hours’ flight, as between Delhi and Karachi via Jaipur
and Jodhpur, Delhi and Lahore, Calcutta and Dacca-Chittagong ;
Patna and Katmandu in Nepal. Yet another “neighbour” service
links Kandahar and Kabul in Afganistan with Eiarachi and Delhi or
Bombay.
EXTERNAL AIRLINE ROUTES — ^In the field of international
air transport Air India International has made vast progress. There
are four weekly services between India and the United Kingdom, twice-
weekly services between Bombay and Nairobi and a service between
Bombay and Singapore via Madras. Regular external services are
being maintained to Cairo, Rome, Paris, Geneva, London, Aden,
Nairobi, Bangkok, Singapore, Ceylon, Burma, Nepal, Pakistan,
Afganistan and Australia.
Progress of Civil Aviation
{For Schedxilcd Services)
miles flown passengers freight mails
(in 000) (in 000) (in 000) (in 000)
1947 9,362 265 , 5,648 1,405
1948 ' ' 12,049 341 11,948 1,583
13
194 HINDUSTAN YEAK-BOOK
1949
15,098
357
22,500
5,032
1950
• 18,896
453
80,007
8,356
1951
19,498
449
87,665
7,182
1952
19,562
434
86,038
8,377
1953
19,202
404
84,820
8,846
1954
19,798
‘•i' 432
86,400
10,674
1955
20,740
452
92,209
11,112
BOARD OF DIRECTORS, INDIAN AIRLINES CORPORATION
Saiikar Prasad, I.C.S., Chairman,
J. R. D. Tata.
M. L. Khaitan.
Michael John.
M. J. Maneckji.
Air Marshal, S. Mukherji.
B. N. Jha, I.C.S.
L. C. Jain I.C.S.
M. V. RangacharL
y. N. Vanna — Secretary.
BOARD OF MEMBERS, AIR INDIA INTERNATIONAL
J. R. D. Tata, Chairman,
Sankar Prasad.
K. C. Mahindra.
Michael John.
B. N. Jha.
M. V. RangacharL
L. C. Jain.
Air Marshal, S. Mukherji.
B. K. Patel, Gen, Manager.
Air India International
2nd half year of 1955 . . 29,149 passengers
1st half year of 1955 , . 21,975 Do
Indian Airlines Corporation
2nd half year of 1955 . . 193,635 passengers
1st half of 1955 . . 231,353 passengers
INDIAN AIRLINES CORPORATION
<A) Madras.
(1) Madras— Trivandrum — Madras, (2) Madras — Hyderabad
—Nagpur — ^Delhi, (3) Madras — Nagpur — Delhi {Night
airmail service).
<(B) Bombay
(1) Bombay — ^Poona — ^Hyderabad — ^Bangalore, (2) Bombay —
Nagpur — Calcutta {Night airmail service), (3) Bombay —
Karachi — Bombay, (4) Bombay — Ahmedabad — Bhuj —
Karachi, (5) Bombay — ^Bhavnagar — Rajkot — Jamnagar —
Bhuj, (6) Bombay — Keshod — Porbandar— Jamnagar, (7)
Bombay — ^Belgaum — ^Mangalore — Cochin. (8) Bombay —
Calcutta — ^Bombay, (9) Bombay — Colombo — Bombay, (10)
Bombay — ^Delhi — Bombay.
<C) Calcutta.
(1) Calcutta — Gauhati — Tezpur — Jorhat — ^Mohanbari, (2) Cal-
cutta — Gauhati — Jorhat — Lilabari — Jorhat — ^Mohanbari
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
195
Passighat, (3) Calcutta — ^Agartala — Gauhati — Silchar, (4)
Calcutta — Agartala — Khowai — ^Kamalpur — Kailashahar—
Silchar — ^Imphal, (5) Calcutta — Bangalore — Calcutta, (6)
Calcutta — Dacca — Calcutta, (7) Calcutta — Chittagang —
Calcutta, (8) Calcutta — Rangoon — Calcutta, (9) Calcutta
— Gauhati — Calcutta, (10) Calcutta — Agartala — Calcutta,
(11) Calcutta — Bagdo^a — Calcutta, (12) Calcutta — Gau-
hati — Mohanhari.
(D) Agartala — Gauhati — ^Agartala.
(E) Kathmandu — ^Patna; Kathmandu — Simra — ^Kathmandu; Ka-
thmandu — Biratnagar — ^Kanthmandu; Kathmandu — Pohh-
ra — ^Bhairawa — ^Pokhra — Kathmandu.
(P) Delhi.
(1) Delhi — Calcutta — ^Delhi, (2) Delhi — ^Lucknow — Gorakhpur
— Banaras — ^Patna — Calcutta, (3) Delhi — Srinagar — Delhi,
(4) Delhi — Lahore — Delhi, (5) Delhi — ^Karachi — Delhi,
(6) Delhi — Amritsar — ^Kabul, (7) Delhi — Agra — Gwalior
— Bhopal — ^Indore — Aurangabad — Bombay, (8) Delhi —
Bikaner — Jodhpur — Ahmedabad — Rajkot, (9) Delhi — ^La-'
hore — Delhi, (10) Delhi — ^Agra — Gwalior — Bhopal — Indore
— ^Aurangabad — Bombay, (11) Delhi — ^Bikaner — Jodhpur
— Ahmedabad — ^Rajkot.
(G) Srinagar — ^Pathankot — Srinagar.
Non-Scheduled Airline Operators
Air Assam, Calcutta. El A1 Israel Airlines Ltd. Bombay.
Air Survey Co. of India, Calcutta. Indamar Co., Bombay, Calcutta.
Associated Airworks, Dum Dum. Jamair, Calcutta.
Darbhanga Aviation, Calcutta. Kalinga Airlines, Calcutta.
Flying Clubs
Aero Club of India, New Delhi.
“Bengal Flying Club Ltd., Bar-
rackpore.
“Bihar Flying Club Ltd., Patna.
^Bombay Fljnng Club, Juhu.
Bombay.
“Delhi Flying Club, Civil Aero-
drome, New Delhi.
“Hind Provincial Flying Club,
Kanpur,
Hind Provincial Flying Club,
Allahabad.
Hind Provincial Fl^^ng Club,
Lucknow.
Hyderabad State Aero Club, Hy-
derabad (Dn.).
M. P. Flying Club, Indore.
Madras Flying Club, Madras.
Northern India Flying Club, Jul-
lundur Cantt.
Orissa Flying Club Ltd., Bhuba-
neswar. ,
Rajasthan Flying Club, Jaipur.
Gliding Clubs
Delhi Gliding Club, Safdarganj, Government Gliding Centre,
New Delhi. Poona.
196
HINDUSTAN YEAK-BOOK
foreign services
1 . Air Ceylon Ltd,, Madras. 7. Pan American "World Air-
2. Air France, Calcutta. ways, Bombay, Calcutta, New
3. B. O. A. C., Bombay, Cal- Delhi.
cutta. New Delhi. 8. Qantas Empire Airways Ltd.^
4. Cathay Pacific Airways, Cal- Bombay, Calcutta, Madras,
cutta. New Delhi.
5. K-L.M. /Royal Dutch Air- 9. Scandinavian Airlines Sys-
lines, Bombay, Calcutta, Mad- tem, Bombay,^ Calcutta, Mad-
ras, New Delhi. ras. New pelhi.
6. Pakistan International Air- 10. Thai Airways, Calcutta.
lines Corporation, Bombay, 11. Union Aeromaritime De
Calcutta, New Delhi, Transport, Calcutta.
12. Union of Burma Airways,
Calcutta.
SOME IMPORTANT DATES
1911 — ^First Official Air Mail on 18th February, 1911 flown from U.P-
Esihibition grounds, AUahabad to Naini Junction by M-
Picquet, a French aviator.
1911 — First passenger in an aeroplane in India was Sir Sefton-
Branker.
1912 — Jules Tyck and Baron de Carters gave India her first public-
flying demonstration at Calcutta (Christmas Eve).
1918 — First flight from Egypt to India hy Capt. Ross Smith-
1919 — First Eng.-Inffia flight by Sqdm.-Leader McLaren & Lt. Haley-
1920 — First Air-mail service was organised by Govt, of India &■
operated by R.A,F. between EArachi and Bombay.
1927 — Imperial Airways sent first air liner to India, January, 8.
1927 — Civil Aviation Department formed in India.
1928 — First Flying Club in India.
1929 — ^First regular air-mail introduced between England and India
on March 30, 1929.
1930 — ^First India-trained pilot -with ‘B’ License was Bhagat Lai.
1932 — First Indian air-line came into cxistance on Oct. 15, 1932 when-
Tata Air-lines began to operate between Karachi-Bombay-
Madras.
1949 — First class internal mafis by air -without a surcharge was in-
troduced on April, 1949.
1953 — -Indian Airlines nationalised on 1st August.
5. .INDIAN POSTS .AND TELEGRAPHS
EARLY HISTORY — ^The first British postal svstem was intro-
duced in 176G hy Lord Clive but this was used mainly for official pur-
poses, During the administration of Warren Hastings, the posts were
made available to tbe public for the first time and a regular organisa-
tion was set up in 1774 by Lord Dalhousie who created an Imperial
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
197
System of post offices. He reduced the rates for carriages of letters
and introduced postage stamps. Act 17 of 1837 is the earliest enact-
ment establishing a public service in India. The Act 17 of 1854 is a
landmark in the history of postal system in India, for the entire de-
partment was placed under Director General and uniform rates were
fixed for all India. The first issue of postal stamps was made in
India in Sind in 1825. They were of three kinds — (a) design
embossed on white paper without colour (6) blue-embossed on white
paper (c) design embossed on Vermillion wafers. The basis of
authority of the existing postal system in India was Act 6 of 1898.
The honour of laying the first experimental telegraph line from
Calcutta to Diamond Harbour in 1839 goes to Dr, William B.
O’ Shanghnessy, professor of chemist^, Calcutta Medical College.
It was then the longest telegraph line in the world — ^21 miles with a
7,000 feet river crossing.
But it was not 12 years later in October 1851, to he precise, that
the first official telegraph line was opened for traffic between Cal-
cutta and Diamond Harbour. 'The construction of long distance
overhead telegraph line began in Nov. 1853 between Calcutta and
Agra. The first telegraph message was sent over the circuit on
March 24, 1864. Later on, this line was extended to Bombay on one
side and to Peshawar on the other. Telegraph circuits were gradu-
ally extended to all parts of India till they reached 14,900 miles of
wire in March 1867. To-day the total mileage of overhead wires is
over 8,00,000.
THE POSTAL SYSTEM— The Posts & Telegraphs Department
is under the Ministry of Communications, whose control is vested with
the Director-General of Posts and Telegraphs who is assisted by a
Posts and Telegraphs Board under the chairmanship of the Director-
General. The other members of the Board are the Chief Engineer,
the senior Deputy Director-General and the Joint Secretary, Ministry
of Finance (Communications Division). The Chief Engineer is the
technical-adviser to the Director-General on telecommunication
matters, while the Senior Deputy Director-General undertakes a
similar function in regard to postal and R. M. S. matters. The De-
partment is responsible for postal, telegraph, telephone and wireless
communications. In addition, it undertakes the management of
P.O. Savings Bank, National Savings Certificates, Postal Life Insu-
rance and collection of Broadcast Receiver Licence fees.
The Posts and Telegraphs organisation functions as a commer-
cial-cum-utility department, but unlike Railways, its finances have not
been separated from the general revenues of the Central Government.
The worlring expenses as well as the interest on the capital invested
in the service are deducted from the gross receipts. Out of the
surplus, an outright contribution is made to the general revenues
and the rest is maintained to the credit of the Department. The
Department, however, reserves a rebate on such accumulated
surpluses.
Territorial Units — ^The country has been divided into 13 terri-.
torial units, including 12 posts and telegraph circles and a postaL
198
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
•circle for Delhi. In addition, there are four telephone districts in
the vcities- of Calcutta, Bombay, Madras and Delhi. Besides, there-
are four administrative units on a functional basis dealing with
telecommunication developments, posts and telegraph workshops in.
-Calcutta, Jabalpur and Bombay, telegraph and telephone stores and
postal life insurance respectively.
P. & T. Circles Jurisdiction
I
1. Postmaster-General, West
Bengal
2. Postmaster-General, Bihar
3. Postmaster-General, U. P.
4. Postmaster-General, Punjab
5. Postmaster-General, Bom-
bay
6. Postmaster-General, Madras
7. Postmaster-General, Central
Circle
8. Director of Posts & Tele-
graphs, Eajasthan . .
9. Director of Post & Tele-
graphs, Andhra
10. Director of Posts and Tele-
graphs, Assam
XI. Director of Posts and Tele-
graphs, Orissa
12. Director of Postal Services,
Delhi
, 13. Director of Postal Services,
Hyderabad
• 14. General Manager, Calcutta
Telephone District . .
16. . General Manager, Bombay
■ • . Telephone District
il6. .Dist. Manager, Delhi Tele-
i phone District
.17. District Manager, Madras
..... ' Telephone District
West Bengal, Andaman & Nicobar
Islands, Sikkim.
Bihar.
Uttar Pradesh.
Punjab, Himachal Pradesh,
PEPSU, Bilaspur, Jammu &
Kashmir, Delhi (Telegraphs
only).
Bombay, Saurashtra and Kutch,
Madras, Mysore, Travancore-
Cochin, Coorg, Hyderabad
(which is a sub-circle under a
Director).
M. ?■., Vindhya Pradesh.
Rajasthan, Madhya Bharat
Bhopal and Ajmer.
Andhra.
Assam, Manipur and Tripura^
Orissa.
Delhi (postal only).
Hyderabad (Sub-Circle).
Calcutta City.
Bombay City.-
Delhi & New Delhi.
Madras City.
FUNCTIONAL UNITS
Additional Chief Engineer P. & In-charge . of telecommunications
- T.i Jabalpur .. development (design ■& Re-
• search)
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
199
General Manager, Workshop . . In-charge of P. and T. workshops
Calcutta, Jabalpur & Bombay
Chief Controller of Telegraph In-charge of telegraph & tele-
Stores . . . . phone stores
PROGRESS OF POSTAL SYSTEM — ^The postal system was
inaugurated in India in October 1854. Next to Railways, the Posts
and Telegraphs Department is the largest civil undertaking in India.
The programme of providing every village with a population of 2,000
and above with a post office has been successfully completed in 1953.
From April 1, 1963, a new policy for setting up post offices in rural
areas has been evolved ; it combines the criteria of population in
groups of villages and distances from existing post offices.
Introduction of All-Up Air Mail Scheme in 1949 constituted a
landmark in the history of mail communications in this country.
. All letters, post cards, money. orders and insured letters are carriM
by air, wherever air transport is available and is advantageous with-
out any surcharge. The introduction of night air services connect-
ing the principal cities of India facilitated the introduction of AII-Up
Mail Service resulting in the abolition of the surcharge on mails for
air conveyance. Over 27 p.c. of the entire inland mail receives air
transmission.
Urban Mobile Post Office was first started as an experimental
measure in Nagpur. Later, the scheme was extended to Madras,
Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta and Kanpur, The mobile post office visits
important centres of the city at specified hours after ordinary post
office have closed for the day.
The following are the notable progresses —
(1) In 1953-54 total number of post offices (permanent and
temporary) in existance was 46,907.
(2) There is today one post office for every single village with
a minimum population of 2,000.
(3) Every village with a minimum population of 600 receives
a visit from the postman at least once a week.
(4) Number of post offices in urban area was 6,179,
RESEARCH AND POSTAL EDUCATION— The P. & T, Train-
ing Centre has been opened at Saharanpur on April 1951 to give in-
tensive practical training to the operative staff and to instil in them
the qualities of discipline, courtsey, punctuality, regularity, cleanli-
ness and a spirit of service to the public. The Telecommunication
Research Centre has been set up in 1956 functioning very shortly.
TELEGRAPH SERVICE — ^The telegraph service in India cele-
brated its centenary in November 1953. The policy of opening tele-
graph offices in every town with a population of over 5,000 and every
sub-divisional headquarters is being implemented. Voice Frequenejf
Telegraph (V.F.T.) systems have been introduced in many places.
Indian telegraph is the oldest government-owned public utility
in the world and it is the second largest employer in India (225,000
workers). At present there are 8,590 telegraph offices all over India
handling annually about 3 crores telegrams inland , and foreign.
Indian telegraph has 400,200 miles of wire and 26,000 miles of cable
-conductor -and 2745)000 miles of channel crossing.
200
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
The Hindi Telegraph Service — A twenty-four hour Hindi tele-
graph service has been introduced between the five principal centres
of telegraph service — Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, New Delhi and
Agra under which telegrams in any Indian lan^ages written in Deva-
nagri script are accepted, is now available in 917 telegraph ofiices
throughout the country.
Printogram Service — ^has been introduced from 1st March, 1956
which is designed to provide a direct teleprinter service between the
subscriber and the telegraph office eliminating the intermediary
messenger service. The telegrams meant for delivery to the subs-
cribers are transmitted to them from the instrument room of G.T.O.
and will be received by them on their teleprinters. This system is
now operating in Bombay. •
A new class of telegrams known as flash message has been in-
troduced on April 1947 for the press. These telegrams receive^ a
higher priority. Another class of telegram, known as Human Life
telegram which receives priority in transmission in case of accidents,
serious illness or death of a person.
De Lux telegram has been re-introduced to foreign countries.
TELEPHONES — Only five-years after the invention of telephone
by Bell in 1876, India had a 60-line telephone exchange in Calcutta in
1881. Though India was almost one of the first countries in the
world to have a telephone exchange, Calcutta was the first place
to have it, Calcutta has the largest number of telephones in any
single city in India. India has to day only *7 telephones per thousand
population as against 310 in U.S.A. Even after our second
Five-Year Plan, we will probably have only 1'25 telephones
per thousand of population. Licenses were granted to a private
company known as Oriental Telephone Co., for the establishment of
exchanges at Calcutta, Bombay, Karachi, Madras and Rangoon. All
these lines, however, was taken up by the Government in 1942. The
first automatic telephone was installed in India at Simla with -700
lines in 1913. At the time of partition in 1947 there were only 278
telephone exchanges and 114,922 telephones. The total number of
telephones including non-exchange telephones and telephones on
licensed system in 1955 rose to 265,000 as against 234,177 in 1954.
To facilitate telephone expansion “oivn your telephone scheme” was
introduced in 1949, Under this scheme, a sum of Rs. 2,500 in Bom-
bay and Calcutta and Rs. 2,000 in other places is realised in advance
from the subscriber for a telephone connection for 20 years. The
maintenance charge is Rs, 2 per month. 0^on your Exchange was
introduced in 1960, Under this scheme, the Department undertakes
to open a 60-line exchange if institutions, firms or individuals advance
a loan of Rs. 50,000 at 2J per cent, interest per annum. This loan is
repayable after 20 years. The number of trunk calls was 151 lakhs
in 1954-66 against 44 lakhs in 1948-49.’
In most places message-rate system of charges has been intro-
duced. Under this . system, a subscriber, besides paying a fixed
monthly rental for the -telephone, also pays for every call that he
makes.
Telephone Industries — ^The Indian Telephone Industries Ltd.,
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
201
Bangalore owned jointly by the Government of India, Government of
Mysore and the Automatic Telephone and Electric Company Ltd.,
of England manufacture telephones, automatic telephone lines and
various types of carrier equipments
Wireless — In addition to telegraph and telephone facilities, India
has a wireless communication system, which serves several useful
purposes. Wireless stations maintain contact between fixed points
as a standby to telegraph system in case of the breakdown of the
latter. Stations at coastal places maintain contact with ships at
sea and also aircraft flying over the sea. Such stations are established
at Bombay, Calcutta, Madras and also at some minor ports. Mete-
riological stations exchange weather data with ships and also with
other countries. Monitoring stations have been established at Jabal-
pur, Calcutta, Delhi and Bombay.
OVERSEAS COMMUNICATIONS SERVICE— Since independence
there have been phenomenal increase in the external radio communica-
tion services between India and foreign countries. The first foreign
electrical communication between India and other countries was estab-
lished by an undersea cable connecting Bombay with London. In 1927
first radio telegraph link was opened between Bombay and London.
Radio telecommunication with other countries of the world was routed
to the international network via London. The private Company in
India (Overseas Communication Service) was nationalised in January
1947. Its development was included in first five-year plan, which
has increased the direct channels of radio communications by
300 per cent.
The Overseas Communications Service is a separate department
headed by a Director-General, Overseas Communications Service
under the Ministry of Communications. Hitherto the chief centre
had been at Bombay. The new radio centres for communications
have been opened at Delhi, Calcutta and Madras.
Its functions are provision, operation and development of all
facilities for communications between India and outside world.
Following classes of services are carried out by the Overseas
Communications Service —
(1) Radio-photo service.
(2) Wireless Telegraph service.
(3) Radio-telephone service.
(4) Press newscast service.
(5) Submarine Cable Telegraph service.
(6) Wireless monitoring service at Bangalore, Bombay, Cal-
cutta, Delhi and Jabalpur.
(7) Inland photo-telegrain service inaugurated for the first
time between Bombay and Delhi on Januairy 26, 1955.
India now has direct radio telephone service with the following
countries — ^Aden, Bahrein, Burma, China, East Africa, Egypt, Hong-
Kong, Indonesia, Iran, Japan, Malaya, Poland, Saigon, Switzerland,
United Kingdom and U. S. S. R.
Radio telephone services via London are available between India
and 35 foreign countries and also via Berne (Switzerland) to Yogoslo-
via. This service is also available at sea by some ships.
202
HINDUSTAN TEAR-BOOK
The orerseas Communication service also operates radio telegraph
service to 13 Countries. Direct radio photo services operate between
India and the U. S. A, XJ. S. S. R., U. K., and China.
Some Postal Statistics — ^The Indian postal system covers 1,60,000
miles of road. Of these, 24 per cent are covered by rail, 17
per cent by motor and five per cent by miscellaneous means, such as
steamers, mail-carts, bullock-carts, horses, mules and camels. The
rest constituting 54 per cent of the total is covered by runners and
small boats.
The number of persons employed in the posts and telegraphs
Department was^ 263,000 in 1955. During 1955-56, the Department
hantUed 2,879 million postal articles _{as against 2,728 million in the
pre'sdous_ year), bopked nearly 33 million telegrams (as against 31
million in the previous year) and put through about 19 million trunk
calls (as against 15 millions in the previous year). The total number
of post offices in India upto 1956 has gone upto 51,539, of which 'the
number opened since Independence is 29,423. The number of total
telegraph offices in India is 4,880. The total number of telephone
exchange in India is 759 on December 1955. The total number of
telephones in India is 265,000.
TOTAL POSTAL REVENUE
{In thousands)
Rs.
1921 .. 5,82,76 1951
1931 ,. 7,36,84 1953-64
1941 . . 9,85,26
Office
Rural Post offices
Urban Post offices
Letter Boxes
POSTAL EXPANSION
1948 1953
19,181 37,434
4,160 5,769
97,408
Rs.
21,03,63
26,64,00
1954
39,728
6,179
1,03,906
POSTAL LANDMARKS
1825 — 1st. Indian postage stamp
issued at Karachi for Sind only.
1830 — First overland post be-
tween England and India estab-
lished when steamer ‘Hugh
Lindsay' made the first voyage
from Bombay to Suez.
1840 — P. & O. obtained charter
for conveyance of mails between
London to Suez en route to India.
1851 — ^First Govt. Telegraph
line opened between Calcutta and
Diamond Harbour.
1854 — 1st. postage stamp on all
India basis issued on 1st October.
1865 — First ' ■ telegraph line
opened between England and
India, 27 Jan. 1865.
1870 — G. P. 0, Calcutta was
opened and occupies the site of
the old fort.
1871 — ^V.P. system was
established.
1877 — ^V. P. System started.
1880 — ^51.0. system introduced-
1885 — Postal Savings Bank
sta^d.
1888 — ^M. O. system started.
1911 — First official Air Mail
flight on 18th February, when
6,500 letters were flown from
.Allahabad to Naini , .Junction.
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
20S:
1929 — ^U. K.-India Air Mail
Service started, 4th April, 1929.
1931 — New Delhi inauguration
commemoration stamp issued.
1935 — Silver Jubilee of King
George VI Stamp first issued
showing various modes of trans-
port of mails.
1942 — ^Airgraph Service start-
ed, February, 2, 1942.
1943 — Photo Telegram Service
introduced 3rd June, 1943.
NEW POSTAGE STAMPS
1947 — ^India issues three Jai
Hind stamps commemorating
Indian Independence, depicting
the Asoka capital, National Flag
and an aircraft.
1948 — Commemoration stamp
for the first flight of India’s first
external air service from ' Bom-
bay to London.
1948 — A set of Gandhi memo-
rial stamps in four values on the
1st anniversary of India’s Inde-
pendence (15th August, 1948).
, 1949 — Set of stamps for 75th
anniversary of Universal Postal
Union.
1949 — ^New stamps represent-
ing the illustrations of Ajanta,
Trimurti, Konark Horse, Sanchi
Stupa, Kandaraya Mahadeva
Temple and Bhubaneswar Tem-
ple, Buddha Gaya Temple, Tomb
of Adil Shah of Bijapur, Amrit-
sar Golden Temple, Tower ot
Chittorgraph, Red Fort of Delhi,
Taj Mahal of Agra, Qutab Minar
of Delhi etc. on Independence
Day.
1960 — ^Independence _ stomp
commemorating the coming into
operation India’s new constitu-
tion (26th Jan.).
1961 — One stomp representing
a pair of Stegoden Ganesa, an
extinct species of modem Indian
1946 — Two Pice Post Card re-
introduced from 1st July.
1947 — Govt, of India purchased
Overseas Telecommunications
Service, Jan. 1, 1947.
1949 — ^Telegraph Transmission'
in Hindi in Devnagri script in-
troduced in June 1949.
1954 — Indian Postage Stamp-
Centenary celebration on 1st.
Oct. and International Postal-
cum-Philatelic Exhibition.
SINCE INDEPENDENCE
elephant for the centenary of
Geological Survey of India.
1951 — tissue of two stomps de-
picting a torch against the south-
ern coast line of Asia on the oc-
casion of first Asian games im
New Delhi, March 4, 1951.
1952 — ^A new series of stamps-
bearing the portraits of sainto-
and poets of India.
1953 — Two Everest conquest-
commemoration stamps (2ndi
Oct.).
1953 — One stomp issued to-
commemorate Indian _ Railway
centenary on 16th April.
1953 — ^Two stomps on the cente-
nary of Indian Telegraphs on 1st-
Nov. 1953.
1954 — Set of four stamps com-
memorating centenary of the 1st.
issue of Indian stomp.
1954 — 2-anna stamp commemo-
rating U.N. Day (24th Oct.).
1954 — 2-anna stamp on the-
occasion of 4th World Forestry-
Congress at Dehra Dun (Dec.).
1955— Five-Year Plan series of
postage stamps on 26th Jan.
1956 — ^Two, Buddha Jayantii
stomps, of two annas and four-
teen annas issued on 24th May.
Tilak centenary stamp issued!
23rd July.
INDIAN SHIPPING
POSITION OF INDIAN MERCANTILE MARINE— India has
.-about 3,500 miles of coastline extending international trade with the
East and the West, a vast population to ‘feed’ and good prospects of
industrialisation. She fully realizes the need of a powerful merchant
mavy able to compete in speed, carrying capacity and efficiency^ of
service with the best mercantile marines of other nations. India’s
•shipping industry is insignificant when compared to those of great
maritime powers. Indian shipping now (511,077 g.r.t.) — hardly 0.52
p.c. of world tonnage, is about adequate to carry the entire coastal,
about 40 p.c. of the adjacent and about 5 p.c. — a distressingly small
proportion — of the over-seas trade. Her coastal vessels carry about
2 million passengers a year, while about 200,000 overseas passengem
-travel by Indian ships. The Shipping Policy Committee of 1947 laid
■down the following objectives for Indian shipping with a view to
secure a tonnage of two millions in the near future, thereby securing
for Indian shipping — (1) 100 per cent of the coastal trade of India,'
(2) 75 per cent of Indian’s trade with Burma, Ceylon and other
neighbouring countries, (3) 50 per cent of India’s overseas trade and
(4) 30 per cent of the orient’s trade formerly carried by Japanese,
•German and Italian vessels. Plan envisaged a rise in India’s shipping
tonnage from 390,707 GRT to 600,000 GET by 1956.
The Government of India, by their resolution dated July 12, 1947
fully endorsed the above view of the Committee. They agreed that
-the definition of Indian Shipping should be shipping owned, controlled
and managed by Indian nationals. They also laid down that follow-
ing conditions should qualify any shipping company for treatment as
■"Indian shipping companies”. — (a) The steamers should be registered
at a port or ports India, (b) At least 76 p.c. of the shares of the
-companies should be held by Indians in their own rights, (c) All the
-directors should be Indians, (d) Managing agents, if any, should
he Indians.
Further, steps were taken to reserve the costal trade of India
■for Indian ships only and a system of statutory licensing was intro-
duced under the Control of Shipping Act, 194?, to give effect to the
policy on coastal reservation. Some of the principal steps taken by
•the Government to encourage the development of Indian shipping
•are detailed below : —
(1) Reservation of coastal shipping.
(21 Grant of loans.
(3) Sale of ships built at the Hindustan Shipyard at the United
‘Kingdom parity price. '
(4) Allotment of Government' owned and/or controlled cargo.
(5) Inclusion of clauses in trade agpreements to ensure a pro-
’portion of cargo to Indian ships.
(6) Establishment of shipping, services with the U.S.S.R. and
S^oland.
(7) Sponsoring admission to international Conferences.
(8) Establishment of State shipping Corporations.
INDIAN SHIPPING
205 -
(9) Establishment of a Directorate.
(10) Establishment of a Directorate.
(11) Administration of labour.
(12) Training of _ personnel.
In conformity with the Industrial Policy Resolution, which in-
cludes sea transport among the industries wherein the State will
increasingly establish new undertakings, the first move was in I960-
when the Eastern Shijiping Corporation was sponsored by the
Government with a majority share. On August 15, 1956 the Corpora-
tion became fully state-owned and operated. It owns six vessels
totalling 42,293, GRT and has regular services to Australia, East
Africa, Malaya and Japan. Another State shipping corporation the
TFestcm Shipping Corporation (Private) has been set up in 1956.
It will operate services between India and the ports of Persian Gulf,
the_Red Sea, Poland and the Soviet Union. A demand for adequate
Indian tanker tonnage to move mineral oil and its refined products
along' the coast and to bring crude oil from abroad has developed.
The Government of India have decided that India should have a
nucleus fleet of three tankers, of which one should be purchased In
private sector and the other two in public sector. One in the private
sector has been purchased by an Indian shipping company with the
aid of government loan. For the public sector, two medium-sized
tankers of 6,000 tons GRT each are to be acquired through Eastern
Shipping Corporation.
SHIPPING CONTROL DEPARTMENT— The Shipping concerns
several ministries : Transport, Production, Commerce and Industry,
Defence, Works, Housing and Pow-er. So, Directorate General of
Shipping has been set up in Bombay in 1949, It is the central body of
the Government of India controlling the whole problem of shipping in
the country. Semi-Government shipping corporations, maritime con-
ventions, seamen’s welfare, nautical surveys, licences for deep sea
navigation and light houses are among the several maritime sub-
jects ■which are dealt -u-ith by the organisation. The three principal
ofiicers of the Mercantile Marine Department at Bombay, Calcutta
and Madras ■will function under the jurisdiction of the Director-
General. The function of the Director-General includes the imple-
mentation of the Government’s policies 'with regard to the develop-
ment of India’s merchant na'vy and the co-ordination of the activities
of various ports.
CONSULTHTS COMMITTEE OF SHIPPING INTEREST—
With a view to ensure better understanding and co-operation between
the Government of India, the country’s export trade and the foreign
shipping interests operating in India, the above additional committee
has been founded is 1955 'with 7 members, being 4 from overseas
shipping conferences, 2 from Indian National Steamshipowners’
National Association and one from the export trade sphere.
CONSULTn’E COMMITTEE OF SHIPOWNERS— with a view
to bringing about better liaison between the Government and the
Indian shipping industry, an advisory body called Consultive Commi-
ttee of Shipowners has Ijeen constituted.
206
HINDUSTAN 'XEAR-BOOK
CATEGORIES OF INDIA’S MARITEHE TRADE— India’s mari-
-time trade today may be summarised in the following categories. —
Pure coastal trade, originating and or terminating at ports on
the coast of the Union of India and the non-coastal trade i.e., the
balance of the maritime trade with other countries of the world
-which would be styled as overseas trade. This latter may further
Tie divided into : (1) Indian Ocean Trade ; (2) Atlantic Ocean trade;
(3) Atlantic or Pacific Ocean Trade. The first of these may be fur-
ther divided into Western i.e., comprising South and East Africa,
Red Sea and Persian Gulf, and Eastern including Burma, Ceylon,
Malaya, China, Japan and Australia.
COUNTRY CRAFT — ^The importance of country craft in the eco-
nomics of India’s water transport cannot be ignored. The sailing
vessel, though small in size, carries the bulk of the cargo between
neighbouring ports at a relatively cheap cost and plays a vital part
in serving as a feeder to industry. The Sailing Vessels Committee
appointed in 1948-49 to enquire in the conditions of the industry has
submitted recommendations for the rehabilitation of this industry.
COASTAL AND NEAR TRADES — Our coastal trade has been
reserved to national ships since August 1950. The aggregate quan-
tity of cargo in dead-weight tons earned on the coast came upto
24.49 lakhs in 1951, 26.08 lakhs in 1952, 28.84 lakhs in 1953 and 28.49
fiakhs in 1954. While all coastal cargo is now carried by Indian
rships, the Government also negotiated with foreign shipping interests
.-and ensured for Indian Shipping a fair share of the Near Trades,
i.e. -the trades with Burma, Ceylon and Pakistan. The position in
this respect is now as follows — (1_) The Coastal Trade : governed
by the Indian Coastal Conference with 14 member liners, aU Indians,
(2) The ludia-Burma Trade : governed by the India-Burma Confer-
ence with five member liners, 3 being Indian and 2 being British.
Trade is shared half and half between Indian and the British lines.
The trade with Ceylon and Pakistan is governed by two conferences :
India-Ceylon Conference and India-Pakistan-Burma-Ceylon Confer-
• ence, this latter being more concerned with inter Burma-Ceylon-
Pakistan trade. These Conferences also have each a membership of
5 liners, of which 2 are British 3 are Indian.
MERCHANT SHIPPING — ^Among the steps taken towards
building up the country’s merchant shipping the most important is
the reservation of coastal trade for Indian vessels. In the coastal
"trade, the share of Indian shipping which was about 53 per cent in
1948 witnessed the phenomenal spurt in the succeeding years and
reached 100 per cent by 1955. Side by side with the direct investment
• of government capital, a significant step taken by government is
the formulation of the policy of State aid by way of loans to units of
private sectors.
No picture of the country’s merchant fleet is complete without
-the inclusion of about 1,800 sailing vessels operated from Indian
Torts. With a total cargo-carrying capacity of 150,000 tons, they
:play an important role in the sea communication of India.
OVERSEAS SHIPPING— It is estimated that Indian Liner Com-
INDIAN SHIPPING
207
panies 'between tbemselves do not carry more than 5 per cent of the
■overseas trade. The total tonnage employed by Indian Companies
in the foreign trade is presumably about 265000 gross registered
tons. The four Indian Companies are now operating in foreign
-trades and their total gross tonnages are — (1) Scindias — 197,288
■GRT, (2) India Steamship 73,293 GRT, (3) Bharat Lines 64,489 GRT.
(4) Great Eastern Shipping 38,167 GRT. (5) Western Shipping
■Corporation Private Ltd., has be^n operation from October 1, 1956
.and it functions along the India — ^Persian Gulf, India — Red sea,
India — Poland and India — Russia routes. A part of these tonnages
however is employed exclusively on the coast, the overseas tonnage
employed being 265,000 GRT. Though the Government has
■endorsed the policy of Indian shipping carrying at least
50 per cent of India’s trade in international waters, there are
number of hurdles which Indian shipping will have to cross for
•carrying 60 per cent of Indian overseas trade. The hurdles are —
(1) a large number of Liner Conferences dominate these trades.
Entry into such Conferences is not an easy matter. Indian Lines
“have not yet been admitted to membership of a number of Conferences
in the way-trades on the main route between India and 'U.K. and India
.and the Continent such as Colombo-U.K., U.K.-Colombo, Colombo-Con-
-tinent, U.K.-Aden and U.K.-Port Said Conferences. (2) Indian Shipping
Companies will have to expand their tonnage on different lines where
•they do not go at present. (3) Passenger services should be opened
■with modem amenities. The Government of India has been
helping Indian shipping companies to become full members of the
Shipping Conferences controlling the India-U.K.-Continent, India-
North America, India- Australia and India-Malaya trades. In
•order to facilitate the entry of Indian shipping into all impor-
■tant overseas trades and to assist in solving the difficulty experienced
by Indian shipping companies by raising the necessary capital, the
Government announced their scheme for the setting up of Shipping
•Corporation on a state-cum-private ownership basis. The Eastern
Shipping Corporation was registered in March 1950 with an initial
■capital of Rs. 20 million, 61 per cent of its shares are owned
by the Government. This corporation now operates six ships in all
•with 42,202 gross tons. This corporation is plying on the India-Aus-
•tralia, India-East Africa and India-Malaya services. Bharat Lines
has been regularly running India-Persian Gulf route. 'While the India
Steamship and Scindias have concentrated on the U.K.-Continent
trade. Necessary assistance was also given to Indian shipping com-
panies for acquisition of additional tonnage by furnishing information
regarding availabilities and arranging liberal release of foreign ex-
•change. Government is also using its good offices to ensure that
Indian companies operating in the overseas trades get their fair share
of cargoes.
Indian Shipping Tonnage — ^The tonnage of Indian shipp-
ing (Company-^wise) employed in the overseas liner service trades
in 1955 is as follows — (1) Seindia Steam Navigation Co Ltd., Bom-
bay — 12 Ships and 83,160 tons, (2) India Steamship Co. Ltd., Calcutta
— 10 Ships and 72,248 tons, (3) Eastern Shipping Corporation Ltd.,
208
HINDUSTAN TEAR-BOOK
Bombay — 6 Ships and 42,293 tons, (4) Bharat Line Ltd., Bombay —
3 Ships and 9,861 tons. (5) Western Shipping Corporation, Total —
31 Ships and 2,08,562 tons. Great Eastern Shipping does not operate
in foreign liner service, though they do foreign tramp shipping and
their tonnage is not included in this.
INDIA AND THE CONFERENCE LINES — ^When after Indian
independence, India entered into overseas trade, few people knew the
struggle which Indian companies had to encounter in order to get their
legitimate share in India’s trade. A layman would perhaps feel that
a shipping company is at liberty to ply its ships ^wherever it
chooses. But in practice, it is not so. There are Shipping Con-
ferences for different trades to which Indian shipping companies
must be full members before they can participate in the foreign
trade. These Conferences are exclusive foreign bodies which would
not allow an outsider to come in and have the due share in the trade.
But after prolonged struggle the Indian companies have been ad-
mitted into Conferences whereby they are enabled to opera.te on the
trade freely with due regard to rules, regiilations, restrictions, etc.
These Conference Lines cover trade between (1) India and U.K.,
(2) India and U.S.A. and North Atlantic Ports, (3) India and Austra-
lia, (4) India and the Continent. The oldest and the most established
of these Conferences is the India-tl.K. Conference.
Besides these four principal overseas conferences, there are
shipping conferences for trades between India and Far East and
Japan, India and South America, India and Persian Gulf and India
and African Coasts. An institution which is not a full-fledged con-
ference is called Rate Agreement. Rate Agreement exists for the
trade between Calcutta and Port Said, Eastern Mediterranean and
North African Ports whereby parties to the Agreement agree to
quote same rates and follow imiform shipping practices.
Indian Coastal Conference — came into existence in the begin-
ning of 1951 which now consists of 14 Indian companies full members.
New Conferences — In 1951, the following four Conferences have
also come into emstence with a view to covering the trades with
Burma, Ceylon and Pakistan — (a) Pakistan-India-Burma-Ceylon
Conference, (6) India-Burma Conference, (c) Burma-India Confer-
ence, (d) Burma-Ceylon Conference.
TRAINING FACILITIES — To train up Indian boys as executive
officers and marine engineers for the Indian merchant navy of India,
the_ second line of defence in the navy, facilities are provided by the
training ship Dufferin in the Bombay Harbour and at the Directorate
of Marine Engineering Training respectively. Post-sea training is given
at the Nautical and Engineering College, Bombay and also at the
Marine Engineering College at Calcutta. Two training ships, Bhadra
at Calcutta and Mekhala at Visakhapatnam train about 1,000 ratings
annually. Bhadra takes candidates for training from Bengal and
adjoining areas while Mekhala trains recruits from other areas like
Madras, Bombay and Visakhapatnam. At Navlakshi in Saurashtra,
a third training establishment for ratings has been set up
to train . 600 boys annually. There has been recently established
INDIAN SHIPPING
209
a Dockyard Apprentice School inside the Dockyard at Bombay
for Marine Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Naval Architecture
Training, etc. For the training of Indian boys to marine jobs. West
Bengal Government have opened in 1949 a training school under Cal-
cutta Port Commissioners. From the middle of 1950, Government
of India have taken over Lady Fraser and Andrews from Calcutta
Port Commissioners, to convert them as training vessels.
The Radar Trainning Centre, the first of its kind in India, was
opened under the auspices of the Nautical and Engineering College
in October 1953.
CREW EMPLOYMENT — ^To regularise employment of Indian
crews on board vessels at Indian ports, the Government have set up
in 1955 Steamers Employment Boards, one in Calcutta and one in
Bombay. The principal objectives of these two Boards are — (1) to
ensure or square deal between the Indian crew and their employers,
(2) to see that more and more the trained Indian crews are
absorbed into services by shipping companies and (3) to regularise
procedure of employment of crew and to create a long line of really
efficient, medically fit, first class Indian crews.
SHIP BUILDING — The idea of reviving ship building and estab-
lishing a modem ship building yard in India was first mooted
out by the Scindia Steam Navigation Company Ltd., in 1919.
During the World War H Scindias pioneered the project for estab-
lishing a ship building yard in India. In June 1941 the foundation
of the shipyard was laid at Visakhapatnam. The keel of the first
ocean-going vessel of 8,000 ton d.w. was laid in June 1946 and
it was launched in March 1948. In accordance with the policy of
establishing nation-building industries and projects in the public
sector and because of the un-economic nature of ship-building in-
dustry for private enterprise to develop that the Government of India
took over in March 1952 the shipyard at Visakhapatnam. The ship-
yard is now owned and operated by a Government-sponsored com-
pany, the Hindustan Shipyard Private Limited in which about 75 p.c.
of the capital is held by the Government of India and the reminder
by the Scindia Steam Navigation Company Ltd. The shipyard
occupies a total area of about 72 acres. It is equipped with four
large-sized shipways, on which ships of 250 ft. in length and
16,000 tons d.w. can be built. As an adjunct to the shipyard, a pro-
ject for the construction of a dry dock has also been sanctioned by
the Government at an estimated cost of Rs. 2.16 crores. This is ex-
pected to be completed in 1959.
So far (1956), the shipyard has built 15 ships, 12 of which are
steamhips of 8,000 d.w. tons each, the remaining three being diesel
ships of 7,000 tons d.w. of modern design. The Indian shipping
companies have now some 36 vessels under construction in Indian and
Foreign yards, the tonnage of which aggregate some 200,000 GRT.
Tanker Fleet — A beginning has been made in the formation of a
nucleus of a tanker fleet on the Indian Register by the purchase of a
second hand tanker Bianca (8,208 gross tons) by the Great Eastern
Shipping Co. Ltd., Bombay. It is also proposed to acquire 2 or 3
more tankers by the Government during the Second Plan period.
14
210
HINDUSTAN TEAB-BOOK
TONNAGE OF VESSELS ENTERED & CLEARED
{Monthly averages — In thousands of tons)
Foreign Trade Coasting Trade
Tonnage
Tonnage
Tonnage
Tonnage
entered
cleared
entered
cleared
Ind &
Ind &
Ind &
Ind &
Foreign
Foreign
Foreign
Foreign
1950
.. 670
607
638
652
1951
.. 777
647
796
764
1952
. . 775
743
837
825
1953
.. 750
885
898
871
1954
.. 754
800
898
880
1955
.. 806
703
831
9S2
(Monthly Abstract
of Statistics,
Sept. 1956).
INDIAN CARGOES
(Monthly averages — 000 of tons)
Foreign Trade
Coasting Trade
Tonnage Tonnage
Tonnage
Tonnage
entered cleared
entered
cleared
1949
.. 21
30
150
150
1950
.. 38
50
245
247
1951
54
66
362
371
1952
.. 56
76
397
418
1953
. . 50
87
440
452
1954
. . 55
79
438
439
1956
.. 66
76
417
444
(Monthly Abstract of Statistics, Sept. 1956).
Number and Tonnage of Indian-owned vessels in the overseas and
coastal trades on 30th June, 1956
Overseas
No. of Vessels
GJt.T.
India-U.K. / Continent
.. 27
187,916
India /Persian Gulf
.. 3
9,861
Bombay /East Africa
.. 1
8,521
India/Japan/Far East
.. 2
10,759
India/ Australia
.. 2
14,433
India / Malaya/ Singapore
.. 1
8,580
Tramp Trade
.. 2
14,463
SS
254,463
Coastal
38
254,463
Cargo
.. 59
207,722
Cargo -cum-passenger
.. 4
10,587
Passenger
.. 6
4,754
Tanker
.. 1
8,208
Short Coastal Range
.. 18
7,196
Total
238,467
.. 126
492,930
(Indian Shipping,
July, 1956).
BANKS IN INDIA
INDIAN BANKING SYSTEM — India’s banking system is one
of the most highly developed aspects of Indian economy. Banking
is operated along both indigenous and western lines. Scheduled
banks which represent the western type of banking, tend to be
concentrated in the five States of Bombay, West Bengal, Uttar
Pradesh, Madras and Delhi where major commercial and industrial
centres are located. Branch banking and unit banking have deve-
loped side by side. Unit banks are typically small and together
control only a small part of India’s total banking business.
Indian banking system has now emerged from a period of con-
solidation to a period of expansion. The Imperial Bank of India
has now been nationalised as the State Bank of India in order to
fill the vacuum in the supply of institutional credit to agriculture and
rural industries. New institutions have been planned to supplement
the existing agencies of credit, such as, the setting up of the Indus-
trial Credit and Investment Corporation of India with the assistance
of the World Bank and with the participation of private capital from
U.K. and the U.S.A. ; under the auspices of the Government of India
a National Industrial Development Corporation has also been esta-
blished to finance new industries, there are also now regional indus-
trial finance corporations in 12 States.
With the Reserve Bank at the apex, the Indian banking system
comprises State Bank of India, Indian Scheduled Banks, Exchange
Banks, non-scheduled banks. Reserve Bank’s control has been
steadily strengthened in the last five years over these institutions
with a view to establishing sound banking practices.
The modem banking system in India began with the British
Agency houses established at Bombay and Calcutta in the 18th
century. Second step was the establishment of three presidency
banks at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in the 19th century. These
presidency banks were amalgamated into the Imperial Bank of India
in 1921 by a special Act which has now been converted into the State
Bank of India. The next stage was the starting of the Reserve
Bank of India in April, 1935.
There was no comprehensive legislation regarding joint-stock
banks in India until the passage of the Banking Companies Act which
came into force on the 16th March, 1949, and now extends to the
whole of India. It does not however apply to co-operative banks.
The Banking Companies Act of 1949 centralises all supervision
as well as control over the banks in the hands of the Reserve Bank
of India. The main duties imposed upon the Reserve Bank in this
respect may be classified as follows : (a) Supervision and inspection
of banks, (b) the licensing of banks and control over opening of
branches, (c) the examination and sanction of schemes of arrange-
ment and amalgamations, (d) the liquidation of banking companies,
(e) the receipt and scrutiny of prescribed returns and_ (/) advising
banks generally and helping them in times of emergencies.
212
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Under the Indian Banking Companies Act of 1949, the business
which a hanking company may transact has been defined and the
minimum paid-up capital and reserves, varying with the geographical
coverage of a banking company, have been prescribed. The minimum
paid-up capital and reserves required of a banking company having
only one office, situated outside the city of Bombay or Calcutta, have
been fixed at Rs. 50,000. A banking company is required to use as
part of its name the word ‘bank,’ ‘banker’ or ‘banking’ and a non-
hanking company is prohibited from using any of these words in its
name.
CLASSES OF BANKS IN INDIA— The banks in India are
generally classified under the following heads — (1) Reserve Bank of
India, (2) Indian banks comprising, (a) State Bank of India and other
Indian Scheduled banks, (b) Indian nqn-scheduled banks i.e. Indian
joint stock banks (including State-owned and State-controlled
banlcs) other than those included in the Second Schedule to the
Reserve Bank of India Act and (c) Indian co-operative banks regis-
tered under the laws of the States where they are situated and
(3) Forei^ banks comprising scheduled and non-scheduled banks
whose registered ofiices are located outside the Indian Union.
Scheduled Banks — ^Banks which carry on the business of
banking in any state to which the Reserve Bank of India Act
extends and which (a) have paid up capital and reserves of an
aggregate, real or exchangeable, value of not less than Rs. 5 lakhs
and (b) are companies as defined in the Indian Companies Act, or cor-
porations or companies incorporated by or under any law in force in
any place outside India, and (c) satisfy the Reserve Bank that their
affairs are not being conducted in a manner detrimental to the interest
of their depositors, are eligible for inclusion in the Second Schedule
to the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934 and when so included are
known as Scheduled Bmiks, The Scheduled Banks are frurther classi-
fied into _ (a) Indian scheduled banks (class A 1) i.e. banks having
their registered offices in the Indian union and (b) foreign scheduled
banks Le. banks having their registered offices outside the Indian
Union.
Non-Scheduled Banks — The non-scheduled banks have been
classified into four classes : A 2 Banks or banks which have paid-
up capital and reserves of Rs. 5 lakhs and above each, but which
have not been included in the Second Schedule to the Reserve Bank
of India Act ; B Banks or banks having paid up capital and reserves
between Rs. 1 lakh and Rs. 5 lakhs each ; C banks or banks each
having paid-up capital and reserves between Rs. 50,000 and Rs. 1
lakh ; and D Banks or banks each having paid-up capital and reserves
of less than 50,000.
Co-operative Banks — comprise State and Central Co-operative
Banks and _ registered non-agricultural (urban) Co-operative
Credit Societies with limited liability, each having minimum paid-up
capital and reserves of Rs. 1 lakh. They are sub-divided into two
passes, namely, ‘A -banks or banks With capital and re'^ervc of
Rs. 6 lakhs and above each and ‘B’ bank or banks with capital and
reserves ranging between Rs. 1 lakh and Rs. 5 lakhs each.
BANKS IN INDIA
213
FINANCE, INVESTMENT, CREDIT CORPORATIONS— Besides
the above class of banks, Industrial Finance Corporation, State
Finance Corporation and Industrial Credit and Investment Corpora-
tion and Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation have come
into existence for the development of industries through banks. The
details of these class of banks are gpven below —
(1) Indtistrial Finance Corporation — ^In March 1948 the Govern-
ment provided for an Industrial Finance Corporation for the
purpose of aiding private enterprise through long and medium
term credit to qualified establishments. The I.F.C. as established
under Industrial Finance Act is a body corporate which can sue and
be sued and is to operate on business principles. Its total authorised
capital is Rs. 100,000,000 divided into 20,000 shares, although only
10,000 were issued in the first instance. Shares are guaranteed by
the Central Government as to principal and as to a minimum divi-
dend currently set at 2i p.c. In no event may dividends exceed
5 p.c. The I.F.C. funds for aiding private enterprises comes from
its share capital and reserves. It may also obtain further funds
by issuing bonds and debentures upto five times the paid value of its
share capital and reserves and by accepting deposits from the public
for period of not less than five years upto a total of Rs. 100,000,000,
To obtain foreign currency, the I.F.C. may borrow from the Inter-
national Bank of Reconstruction and Development. I.F.C. may only
assist public limited companies or co-operatives which are incorpora-
ted and registered in India and which are engaged in the manufac-
ture or processing of goods, in mining, or in the generation and dis-
tribution of power.
(2) State Finance Corporations — ^In 1951 the State Financial
Corporation Act authorised State Governments to establish finan-
cial corporations which are to be operated as the Central
Government operates the Industrial Finance Corporation. Although
the Central Government will have no direct control, both the Reserve
Bank and the Industrial Finance Corporation will provide part of the
capital and appoint some of the directors of the State Corporations.
Unlike the Industrial Finance Corporation, the State Corporations
permit the public to subscribe upto 25 p.c. of the total shares.
The purpose of the State Corporation is to supplement the acti-
vities of the Industrial Finance Corporation by providing to small
establishments services similar to those extended by the latter to
large enterprises. The total number of State Finance Corporations
so far established is thirteen.
(3) Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation — The object
of the Corporation is to assist industrial enterprise within the
private sector. The Corporation was registered as a private limited
company on Jan. 5, 1955. The authorised capital is Rs. 25 crores
consisting of five crores in ordinary shares of Rs. 100 each and
Rs. 20 crores in unclassified shares of Rs. 100 each. Of the Rs. -5
crores, Rs. 2 crores are to be taken by Indian Banks, insurance com-
panies and directors and their friends and associates. The Ameri-
can investors are taking up Rs. 50 lakhs, U.K. subscribes are expec-
ted to take Rs. one crore and Rs. one and half crores are offered for
214
HINDUSTA2J TEAE-BOOK
public subscription in India. The Government of India is to advance
to the Corporation Es. 7* crores, free of interest repayable ^in 15
equal annual instalments World Bank is to lend 10 million dollars
in foreign currencies.
(1) RESERVE BAlvK OF INDL4
The Reserve Bank of India vras established on Aprfl 1. 1935 in
accordance vrith the provisions of the Reserve Bank of India_ Act,
1934. The central banking functions including the right of issue,
formerly exercised by the Imperial Bank of India, were transferred
to the Reserve Bank. The Reserve Bank was owDed_ by private
sharebolders with the exception of a small fraction of the shares
held by the Central Government. On September 3, 194S, the Reserve
Bank was nationalised by the Reserve Bank (Transfer to Public
ownership) Act, the shares of private shareholders bring purchased
by the Central Government. The Central Board of Directors under
this Act is composed of 11 directors, one a Government official, four
representing the local boards, and six representing other interests.
Four lessor boards were established to represent regional and local
interest. All of the members of both the local and central boards
are appointed by the Central Government.
P^unctions of the Reserve Bank — The role of the Reserve Bank
in the Indian economy may be divided into following functions —
(11 issue of currency, (2) banker’s bank, (S) fiscal agent of the
Central and State Governments, (4) iniscellaneons_ matters.
Issue of Currency — The Eeserve Bank’s special Issne Depart-
ment carries out its function as the sole bank of issne in India. The
Issne Department is required to maintain at least 40 per cent of
its assets in gold and sterling although exceptions can be made for
a limited period provided tax is paid on the deficiency. The remain-
der of its assets are rupee coin and rupee securities.
A Bankcr^s Bank — The Preserve Bank assists and co-ordinates the
activities of the various local banks throughout the country. It also
supervises and regulates their practices and policies. Its authority
in these respects was greatly expanded in the Banking .Act of 1949.
Dnder the Banlang Act of 1949,* (1) the Eeserve Bank is accorded
broad powers to regulate incorporated haulm operating in In^
including non-scbeduled banks but excluding co-operative banks, in-
digenous banks, money lenders etc. (2) The primary responsfoility
for the enforcement of Banking (Companies .Act is that of the Reserve
Bank. The Act establishes the general framework within which
banks must operate. The Reserve Bank is given the general autho-
rity to make rules to carry out the purposes of the .Act. In addition
to the controls over banks and banking operations, the Reserve Bank
exercises control over bank lending policies and supply conditions
of credit.
Fiscal Agent of Government — The functions of the Bank as a
fiscal agent of the Central and State Governments include manage-
ment of their receipts, expenditures and public debts. The Bank is
also authorised to make 90-day advances to these Governments and
BANKS IN INDIA
215
to advise and • assist them in floating of new loans and in their
financial matters.
Miscellaneous functions — ^The Reserve Bank of India has a
number of other functions including the administration of exchange
control, _ participation in the ownership and management of the
Industrial Finance Corporation, special responsibilities with regard
to rural credit, the supply of various forms of currency, the exten-
sion of remittance facilities, the management of clearing houses
and the publication of banking statistics.
Reserve Bank Developments — The Reserve Bank of India
(Amendment and Miscellaneous Provisions) Act was enacted on
13ec. 30, 1953. The Act seeks to enlarge the scope of financial occo-
modation by the Reserve Bank for productive purposes and also to
enable the Reserve Bank to reintroduce high denominational notes.
Accordingly the Reserve Bank of India commenced issuing new
notes of the denomination of Rs. 1,000, Rs. 6,000 and Rs. 10,000 from
April 1, 1964.
Keeping in view the requirements of monetery and credit poli-
cies in the context of the Second Five-Year Plan, the Reserve Bank
Act has been amended vesting the Bank with power to vary
reserve requirements of scheduled banks. The amendment has set
up a system of flexible reserve ratios, giving the Bank the power to
vary the cash reserves which scheduled banks have to maintain with
the Reserve Bank between 5 and 20 per cent in th case of demand
liabilities and between 2 and 8 per cent in the case of time liabilities
as against the present ratios which remain fixed at 5 per cent and 2
per cent respectively, under Section 42 of the Reserve Bank' of
India Act.
The currency reserve provision (Sections 33 and 37) have also
been amended. It provides for a minimum holding of Rs. 400 crores
in foreign securities and of Rs. 115 crores in gold in the Issue
Department of the Bank; the existing requirement is that not less
than 40 per cent of the assets of the Issue Department must
consist of gold coin, gold bullion or foreign securities provided that
the amount of gold coin and gold bullion is not at any time
less than 40 crores in value, gold being valued for this purpose
at the rate of Rs. 21-3-10 per tola. The amendment also pro'vides
for revaluing the gold holdings of the Bank at the rate agreed to by
the International Monetary Fund, namely, Rs. 62-8 per tola (i.e.,
equivalent of Rs. 35 an announce).
Bill Market Scheme — was introduced in January 1952, under
which advances were introduced to Scheduled Banks on the security
of usance promissory notes of their constituents. This ensured the
grant of credit against bonafide transactions and at the same time
imparted flexibility to the monetory policy of the Bank. The Bill
Market Scheme was originally available to scheduled banks with
deposits of Ife. 100 million ; it was later extended to banks with
deposits of over Rs. 50 million in June 1963 and in July 1954 ; it was
extended to all scheduled banks in possession of a_ licence from the
Reserve Bank, irrespective of their total deposits. Though the
scheme is based on ad hoc bills it has obviated the need to purchase
216
HINDUSTAN 1ZAR-B00K
securities, "wHle providing at the same time a substitute instrument
for credit expansion. The minimum limit of advances under the
Bill Market Scheme is novr a million rupees ; the minimum for an
individual bill is Rs. 50,000.
Agricultural Credit Department — The Reserve Bank of India
from its very inception, has had an Agricultural Credit Department.
It is the statutory obligation of the Bank to render all possible help
to agricultural credit. The Reserve Bank provides accommoda-
tion to the co-operative movement through the apes co-ope-
rative banks at a concessional rate of li per cent for financing
seasonal agricultural operations. The benefit of these advances
■were derived by two States — Madras and Bombay— ^'which have an
organised co-operative movement. But the most important step
taken by the l^serve Bank "was the appointment of an expert com-
mittee in August 1951 to organise a Rural Credit Survey.
In pursuance of the recommendations of the All India Rural
Credit Survey Committee, two funds, viz^ the National Agricultural
Credit (long term operations) Fund -with an initial smn of Rs. 10
crores and the National Agricultural Credit (stabilization) Fund to
which the Bank’s annual contribution shall not be less than Rs. 1
crore were started. While the long-term Operation Fund would make
loans and advances to State Govemmente for subscribing to the
share capital of Co-operative Credit Institutions and to the central
land mortgage banks, the Stabilization Fund would make medium
term bonus and advances to State Co-operative Banks to enable them
to convert short-term credit into medium term credit wherever
necessary.
LIABILmES AND ASSETS OF RESERVE BANK OF INDIA
(i) Issue Department
(in Lakhs of Rupees)
Notes held Notes in Total liabi- Gold coin
SOth
J^ine.
in Banking circulation
Dept.
litics (total
nates issued)
or Assets
ajid bulli-
on held in
India
Foreign
Securities
1950
36,61
1,168,53
1,205,14
40,02
638,15
1951
34,84
1,257,48
1,292,32
40.02
678.15
1952
34,40
1,129,48
1,163,88
40.02
583.15
1953
38,47
1,136,32
1,174,78
40,02
603.15
19,54
41,08
1,172.03
1.213.12
40.02
653.15
1955
31,78
1,309,76
1.341.55
40.02
652,05
Total Gold coin
& bullion &
Rupee
coin
SOth June
foreign
securities
1950
678,17
55,30
1951
718,17
57,52
1952
623,17
76,08
Govt, of India
Ritpce SCC7I-
rities
471,67
516.63
454.63
P.C. of gold
coin & bul-
lion &
foreign
securities
to total
liabilities
56-27
55-57
53-54
BANKS IN INDIA
217
1953
643,17
91,76
439,86
64-76
1954
693,17
98,73
421,22
57-14
1955
692,06
105,84
543,65
51.59
(ii) Banking Department
(In Lakhs of Rupees
K
’ic-
tz
©5 K
_ C.
£w: C
«-
-= at;
c5 S
o
.2 =
ec
c
jS
sc
c
c e
a.O'-;s
e
ic c
o
1950
10,00
271,89
3,81
12,14
297,83
36,74
1951
10,00
310,00
2,37
9,82
332,19
34,98
1952
10,00
241,54
3,31
8,01
262,87
34,56
1953
10,00
247,02
1,96
14,68
273,66
38,69
1954
10,00
241.45
2.18
20,97
274,60
41.33
1955
10,10
146,18
6,95
23,40
186,53
31,91
Jz
-4 »
S
o
St
a, ^ z
v*
nd 1.^
<^2 § o
e c
“2 £
5^ 9
222
e § C
c 2 V
o:
sec
e a
c ^
1
*5,2
to ^
S to
Other
assets
1950
1,76
189,25
93
10,01
57,05
1951
2,09
178,35
7,50
18,71
88,12
1952
10,19
98,24
1,68
28,28
86,94
1953
14,60
111,70
3,40
20,88
79,80
1954
5,83
92,65
47
37,47
91,31
1955
11,72
60,91
76
28.24
46,39
VWJWA. •vr \J,i,
(Statistical Tables relating to banks in India, 1955)
2,10
2,44
3,08
4.59
5,56
6.59
(2) INDIAN BANKS
(a) State Bank of India
The State Bank of India vras the ontcoine of the recommendation
of the Committee of Direction of the All India Rural Credit Survey
appointed by the Reserve Bank of India in August 1951. The Com-
mittee recommended the setting up of a State Bank as one strong in-
tegrated state-partnered commercial banking institution •with an
effective machinery of branches spread over the whole country for
stimulating banking development by providing vastly extended remitt-
ance facilities for co-operative and other banks and follo'wing a policy
which would be in effective consonance with national policies adopted
by Government ■without departing from the canons of sound business.
The Committee was of the view that the State Bank of India should
be formed by taking over the Imperial Bank of India and other State-
associated banks. Accordingly the State Bank of India Act was
passed in 1955.
218
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
The State Bank of India came into being on July _1, 1955,
when the entire undertaking of the Imperial Bank of India including
all its assets and liabilities was transferred to it. The State
Bank has an authorised capital of Es. 20 crores and an issued capital
of Rs. 5,62,50,000, which stands allotted to it in lieu of the shares of
the Imperial Bank of India. The Reserve Bank of India holds at
least 55 per cent of the issued share capital and may transfer the
balance of 45 per cent of the State Bank shares to private share-
holders, preference being given to the existing shareholders of the
Imperial Bank of India. The erstwhile shareholders have been paid
compensation at the rate of Rs. 1,765-10-0 for every fully paid up
share and Rs. 431-12-4 for every partly paid share.
The management of the Bank vests in Central Board consist-
ing of (1) a Chairman and a Vice-Chairman appointed by the
Central Government in consultation with the Reserve Bank. (2) not
more than two Managing Directors, if any, to be appointed by the
Central Board with the approval of the Central Government, (3) six
directors elected by the shareholders, other than the Reserve
Bank, whose names are entered in the various branch registers,
(4) eight directors nominated by the Central Government in
consultation with the Reserve Bank to represent territorial and econo-
mic interests, (6) one director nominated by the Central Govern-
ment and (6) one director nominated bjr the Reserve Bank.
The State Bank continues to provide credit to industiY, trade
and commerce as the Imperial Bank used to do. In addition, it is
e:^ected to assist banking development on more vigorous lines. It
will open about 400 branches within a period of five years. It will
provide considerably larger remittance facilities and attempt to mobi-
lise available rural savings. Later, with an expanded organisation
and with development in warehousing and marketing, the State Bank
is ej^ected to be a powerful agency for enlarging the supply of rural
credit. The Reserve Bank will continue to provide assistance for the
extension of rural credit through the apex co-operative banks, as at
present
The State Bank shall, if so required by the Reserve Bank, act as
agent of the Reserve Bank at all places in India where it has a branch
and where there is no branch of the Banking Department of the
Reserve Bank. With the sanction of the Central Government, the
State Bank may also enter into negotiations for acquiring the business,
including the assets and liabilities, of any banking institution.
1950
1951
1952
Liabilities and Assets of the State Bank of India
(In Lakhs of Rupees)
Paid-up
Capital Reserves
Total
Deposits
Cash
in hand
Cash in
Banics
Invest-
ments
(Govt.
Securi-
. 5,63
6,33
231,37
7,17
21,01
ties)
107,15
. 5,63
6,35
230,91
6,71
22,86
68,93
. 5,63
6,35
205,85
3,65
21,90
80,64
BANKS IN INDIA
1953
1954
1955
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
5,63
5,63
5,63
6,35
6,35
6,35
206,97
231,13
225,77
3.69
3.70
3,42
15.95
32,67
25.96
Other invest-
ments
. . 14,40
. , 16,23
. . 16,61
. . 13,19
. . 13,77
.. 12,02
Loans
& Ad-
nances
94,44
133,66
107,12
92,03
96,15
90,55
Bills discounted
& purchased Net profit
7,51 1.25
8.81 1.30
6,05 1.33
14,28 1.27
6,17 1.37
16,80 4,36
219
80.95
94.95
104,96
No. of
offices
382
393
410
424
455
484
(Statistical Tables Relating Banks m India, 195 ).
Joint-stock Banks or Other Indian Scheduled Banks
Other Indian scheduled hanks are Indian* Scheduled
India and 15 major exchange banks, ^ese otner x
Banks are re^stered under are sub-divided into
Known also as the Joint-Stock Banks, tney Reserves
four classes, namely (a) t^ose clpitel and Rese^es
of Rs. 5 lakhs and over ^nd other divisions
between one lakh and less than Ks. 5 laans anu
with less capital and reseiwes. . nrvmTncrcial banks. These
Indian Scheduled Banks are f^dlities^ They receive
Banks provide India s internal ci ^
deposits or mortgages, p„„RanKe securities, grain or
counts, advance loans against stock exchan^ .jT^ey
cloth, buy and sell shares and transact other b ng^ render
keep the valuables of their austonwrs in saf^
other services to their customers. The a^cuiru j ^jj^j^ers and
banks is small and is generally confined to Dig
planters.
LIABILITIES & ASSETS OF OTHER INDIAN SCHED
banks
(In lakhs of Rupees)
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
■»-. ej
S-’e
£
Q OQ
o
<5 S
:i’i
03
t?
«
.. 74
.. 75
.. 75
.. 72
.. 71
.. 71
30,23
28,82
28,08
27,12
27,03
27,22
20.33
20,98
20,30
20.37
20.34
20.38
522,70
617,34
509.52
633.04
686,08
561,55
39,67
37,30
33,42
33,73
32,88
35,49
e
eo
B
O
51,48
48,44
50.00
46,68
54,23
63,31
222 HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
1952
20,67
3,69
42,01
1,68
52
1,330
1953
20,49
4,15
41,90
1,64
62
1,262
1954
21,69
4,99
40,79
1,65
62
1,199
1955
25,47
5,65
41,42
2,11
53
1,169
TOTAL ASSETS AND LLABILITIES OF SCHEDULED AND
NON-SCHEDULED BANKS
No. of
Banks
Paid-up
Capital
s>
5
CO
o
Ci
Total
deposits
Cash in
hand
Cash
in Bank
1950
605
46,11
30,56
1,001,90
56,53
93,40
1951
566
43,84 -
31,31
988,08
54,53
96,88
1952
531
43,20
31,26
954,65
45,81
90,03
1953
521
41,82
31,40
969,39
45,81
78,90
1954
498
41,46
31,50
1,062,53
44,97
105,16
1955
474
41,30
31,49
1,154,72
48,66
97,69
t ^
t-. s
§
Is ?(i
'3|
2§
=511
t
*??■
53 — *
S ”
o ?
?>
O.g
<3,2
^ s &
1950
388,95
51,00
486,17
66,91
8,11
4,310
1951
321,94
53,41
590,93
75,46
9,58
4,115
1952
339,78
52,99
516,01
62,45
7,81
3,976
1953
348,69
51,81
488,40
84,03
7,47
3,943
1954
368,32
56,71
539,62
89,24
7,79
3,964
1955
407,68
59,31
587,18
133,40
8,81
4,027
EARNINGS & EXPENSES OP INDIAN NON-SCHEDULED
BANKS
1951
No. of
Banks
(In Lakhs
Earnings
of Rupees)
Expenses
Disposal of
net profits
& accumu-
lated sur-
pluses
Allocation
of sums
available
59
1,93-0
1,70-2
15-3
15-3
1952
61
2,10-6
1,87-8
14-2
14-2
1953
56
1,96-3
1,63-3
31-2
31-2
1954
67
2,12-8
1,76-1
35-4
35-4
1955
59
2,37-1
2,00-0
26-3
26.3
(.Statistical Tables Relating Banks in India, 1955).
BANKS IN INDIA
223
EARNINGS & EXPENSES OF INDIAN SCHEDULED BANKS
(In Lakhs of Rupees)
Disposal of
net profits
& accumw- Allocation
1951
No. of
Banks
Earnings
Total
Expenses
lated sur-
pluses
of sums
available
72
32,28-0
24,77-1
10,41-2
10,41-2
1952
73
34,38-2
26,94-6
8,16-1
8,16-1
1953
68
34,33-7
27,82-0
7,44-2
7,44-2
1954
70
37,18-7
30,15-1
7,94-1
7,94.1
1955
69
41,45-4
34,08-8
8,30-8
8,30.8
(Statistical Tables relating Banks in India 1955).
(C) CO-OPERATIVE BANKS
The Co-operative Banking organization owes its origin to the
Co-operative Credit Societies Act of 1904. This Act was further
amended by the Act of 1912. Under Co-operative Societies Act, all
classes of registered societies whether in themselves prima)^ units
or federation of constituent societies are spoken as ‘Societies.’ In
actual practice, however, the primary units are in some provinces
known as banks and in others as societies. Co-operative Banks com-
prised State and Central co-operative banks, and registered non-a^-
cultural (urban) Co-operative Credit Societies, with limited liability,
each having minimum paid-up capital and reserves of Rs. 1 lakL
They are sub-divided into two classes, namely ‘A’ bank or banks
with capital and reserves of Rs. 5 lakhs and above each, and ‘B’
banks or banks with capital and reserves ranging between Rs. one
lakh and P-s. 6 lakhs each.
The Co-operative Banking system consists of the Provincial
Bank at apex, the affiliated Central Banks, and lastly the primary
societies affiliated to the Central Banks. According to the rules
framed under the Act, these banks cannot generally lend to non-
members.
The functions of Co-operative Banks are as follows ; —
(1) Attracting deposits from money-lenders and professional
classes. (2) Lending money to the primary co-operative societies.
(3) Taking away the excess fund of a Co-operative Society and uti-
lising it for making up the deficiency of others. (4) Supervising
and guiding the actions of affiliated Societies.
LIABILITIES AND ASSETS OF ALL CO-OPERATIVE BANKS
93
O
03
-
5*
Q 03
s w
t ^
^3,
p
o
03
■H S.
03
5 e
o
«
o o
E-iC)
o.§
oJ
417
9^0
9,29
100,99
3,81
7,78
460
10,55
10,29
105,80
3,62
8,00
1950- 51
1951- 62
224
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
1952-53
i'll
12,27 12,01
115,37 3,39
8,52 36,17
1953-54
542
14,69 12,67
129,39 3,73
8,84 38,70
1954-55
572
16,96 13,77
144,95 4,10
14,89 42,11
Loans & Advances
Net profit
No. of ofiices
1950-51
. . 73,65
1,12
823
1951-52
. . 82,24
1,26
869
1952-53
. . 87,49
1,29
920
1953-54
. . 98,71
1,37
1,014
1954-55
.. 107,74
1,55
1,113
FOREIGN SCHEDULED (Exchange) BANKS
The main business of the Exchange Banks is financing the
foreign trade of India. The Exchange Banks are all incorporated
outside India. They purchase bills in foreign currency, grant loans
against shipping and other documents. They also play some little
part in the financing of inland trade mainly for the movement^ of
goods for export or of goods imported. But now they are extending
their operations in the interior of the country and are receiving
deposits also on saving and fixed accounts and are engaged in financ-
ing the internal trade of India. Because the Banking Companies Act
of 1949 requires banks to maintain 75 per cent of the liabilities
in the form of assets inside of India, the exchange banks’ internal
financial operations are likely to increase.
The Exchange Banks furnish the immediate link with the out-
side world of trade and commerce. Primarily the exchange banks
specialise in the finance of foreign trade and their beginning dates
back to the Oriental Banking Corporation in 1842.
The Exchange Banks are — National Bank of India, Lloyds Bank,
Chartered Bank of India, Australia and China, Grindlays Bank,
Hongkong and Shanghai Bankiitg Corporation, Mercantile Bank of
India, Eastern Bank, National City Batik of Netp York, Bank of
Tokyo, British Sank of Middle East. Netherlands Trading Society,
American Express Co., Comptoir National D’Escompte de Paris,
Bank of China.
Foreign Scheduled Banks
(In Lakhs of Rupees)
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
No. of
Banks
16
16
15
16
16
17
All de-
posits
174,16
169.84
176,50
165.84
178,49
195,13
Invcst-
Cash
in hand
& banks
menfs
(Govts.
Securi-
ties &
Loans
& Ad-
vances
Bills dis-
counted
& pur-
chased
Net
profit
others)
19,13
50,61
112,73
23,01
2,09
24,84
46,30
148,69
25,83
. 3,14
16,83
44, SB
131,00
19,31
1,87
14,59
47,00
110,71
20,44
1,39
16/)5
48,23
124,94
25,75
1,25
17,80
49,67
141,79
31,88
1,68
{Siaiistical Tables Relating Banks in India, 1955).
BANKS IN INDIA
225 .
INDIGENOUS BANKS
A large part of India’s credit is absorbed by agriculture, small-
scale manufacturing and retail trade. Pew such borrowers are able
to obtain credit from either scheduled or non-scheduled banks and
must turn to less strict sources of credit such as indigenous bankers,
money lenders, loan offices, mutual aid societies or co-operatives.
The indigenous bankers are those who carry on banking business
according to traditional Indian methods. They are known as Shroffs.
Saimkers, Nidhis, Chettiyars. The Indian Central Banking Enquiry
Committee defines an indigenous banker or bank as an individual or
private firm receiving deposits and dealing in hundis or lending
money. Those who do not receive deposits were to be known as
money lenders. Their business is generally a family concern. They
supply their own capital. Some of them also accept deposits from
the public. Their main function is to grant loans against the secu-
rity of gold or ornaments. Government Securities etc. They grant
loans to village money-lenders, banias and small artisans. They
finance movement of agricultural crops from one part of the country
to another by drawing hundis or internal bills of exchange. They
also discount hundies. Indigenous bankers are generally divided into
three categories — (1) Those who confine their business in banking
proper, (2) those who are principally traders or merchants but employ
surplus funds in banking business and (3) those who are both bankers
and traders and cannot be easily classified as principally bankers
or principally traders. The indigenous bankers are found to render
valuable services in connection with financing of internal trade and
middle sized and small industries and inland remittance works.
LAND MORTGAGE BANKS
Royal Commission on Agriculture in India in 1928 and Banking
Enquiry Committee in 1930 recommended that Land Mortgage Banks
based on co-operative principles are desirable in many parts of India.
The principal objects of these banks should be the redemption of the
land and houses of the agriculturists and liquidation of old debts.
Other objects are improvements of land and of methods of cultiva-
tion and the building of houses of agriculturists and purchase of land
in special cases.
Land Mortgage Banks have been started under the auspices of
the co-operative movement in the Punjab, Madras, Bombay, Bengal
and Assam, but the beginning is very small.
I5IPORTANT BANKING DEVELOPMENTS
Banking Companies Act — ^The Act was passed on Feb. 17,
1949 and applied to all banking companies except co-operative banks.
Banking has been defined as “the accepting for the purpose of lend-
ing or investment, of deposits of money from the public, repayable
on demand or otherwise, and withdrawable by cheque, ^aft, order or
otherwise.”
Under the Banking Companies Act, 1949, the business which a
15
228
HINDUSTAN YEAK-BOOK
and National Agricultural Credit (Stabilisation) Fund. The Eeserve
Bank constituted the first of these, the National Agricultural Credit
(Long term Operations) Fund, on February 8, 1956, with an initial
sum of Es. 10 crores. An annual contribution of not less than Es. 5
crores for the five years commencing from June 30, 1956 is to be made
towards this Fund. The Fund will make loans and advances to State
Governments for subscribing to the share capital of co-operative
credit institutions and to central land mortgage banks. The first loan
out of the Fund for Es. 8 lakhs were sanctioned to the Government
of Madras for contribution to share capital of large-sized credit
societies.
The Stabilisation Fund would make medium term loans and
advances to State Co-operative Banks to enable them to convert short
term credit into medium-term credit whenever necessary.
TEAINING IN BANKING — (1) Bankers’ Training College was
opened at Bombay on the 14th September, 1954 by the Eeserve Bank
of India for imparting training in practical banking to supervisory
staff of commercial banks. Students will be trained in all aspects of
banking and a dummy bank would be opened in the institution to
give more practical work to them.
(2) Co-operative Training Centre has been opened in Poona for
training workers of the co-operative banks in India.
(3) Baroda University has opened training course in banking
at Baroda. The course is meant for graduates in banking who
wish to take banking as a profession.
INDIAN JOINT-STOCK BANKS, 1955
Number of Banks
I. Indian Banks
1952
1953
1954
1955
(i) Scheduled (Al)
' (ii) Non-Scheduled —
76
73
72
72
A2
70
67
65
64
B
194
196
191
190
C
114
114
116
105
; D
60
54
37
25
,
.
. Total of (i) & (n)
(iii) Co-operative
514
504
481
456
■A
90
104
124
140
B
360
373
418
432
■■
.1
..
Total of (iii)
450
477
542
572
. ' Total ({), (ii) & (Hi)
II. Foreign Banks —
964
981
1,023
1,028
(i) Scheduled
15
16
16
17
(ii) Non-Scheduled
2
1
1
1
-1
■ —
- —
__
. • . Total I & II
981
998
1,040
1,046
.; (Statistical Tables relating Banks
in India,
1955).
BANKS IN INDIA
'229
POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK TRANSACTION’S
No. of
depositors
(000)
Deposits
including
interest
(in lakhs)
of Re.)
With-
drawals
(in lakhs
of Rs.)
Balances
(in lakhs
of Rs.)
Average
balance
per
depositor
Rs.
1951
. . 4,090
110,19
93,80
185,06
452-5
1962
. . 4,446
121,33
108,65
199,81
449-4
1953
. . 4,830
124,49
106,74
217,68
450-7
1954
. . 6,070
141,18
126,91
231,96
457-5
1955
. . 6,384 147,17 122,63 256,49 476-4
(Statistical Tables relating Banks in India 1955).
NUMBER OP CHEQUES & AMOUNTS CLEARED, 1954
No, of Amount in No. of Amount in
cheques lakhs cheques lakhs
Calcutta
80,35,485
3,066,31
Delhi
22,61,751
233,03
Bombay
1,33,44,912
2,995,63
Bangalore
9,16,400
102,94
Madras
Kanpur
41,45,873
8,95,789
412,21
146,11
Others
68,62,953
364,63,163
872,88
7,819,01
STATE-WISE DISTRIBUTION OF TOTAL INDIAN JOINT-STOCK
Andhra
BANKS,
No. of
Banks
6
1955
Paid-up
Capital
(Rs. 000)
48,07
Reserves
(Rs. 000)
15,86
' No. of
offices
182
Assam
4
12,36
3,26
29
Bihar
7
69,21
21,64
144
Bombay
.. 42
8,94,05
10,03,94
641
M, P.
4
47,76
4,20
161
Madras
.. 139
4,16,61
77,27
766
Orissa
2
27
4,25
17
Tunjab
.. 12
68,25
88,69
206
U. P.
.. 21
1,78,88
45,23
414
W. Bengal
.. 27
11,12,96
8,77,69
188
Hyderabad
6
81,10
66,90
98
M. B.
3
19,29
29,56
63
3Iysor6
.. 16
86,62
1,02,52
128
BEPSU
1
16.00
64,94
77
"Rajasthan
8
1,82,66
90,46
- IVl
Saurashtra
3
1,03,65
48,86
‘ 105
Travancore-Cochin
.. 137
3,30,05
1,11,66
656
Ajmer
1
41
13
11
Bhopal
•
1
12,60
30
6
'230
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
Coorg
■ * • •
• • • •
6
Cutch
• • • •
, ,
6
Delhi
Pradesh
.. 12
3,99,29
2,71,82
94
Himachal
• • • •
7
Manipur
, ,
1
14,08
98
1
Tripura
1
16,85
34
3
Vihdhya Pradesh
1
20,00
13,53
10
Jammu &
Kashmir
1
7,86
4,85
.22
Pondicherry
..
••
••
4
455
41,29,68
31,49,14
3,959
■
{Statistical Tables Relating to Banks in India, 1955). ;
MONEY RATES IN INDIA
{per cent per annum)
Call
Loan rate (b)
{S.
B. of India)
; .
Bank
rate
Treasuri
Bill rate
{Average]
5 lakhs
or over
Below
5 lakhs
1
ts
4i
Advances
rate {d)
s.b: of
India
1952-53
.. Zl
2-22
35 32
4
1953-54
.. 3J
2-46
Zh 32
,4i •
4^-
1954-55
.. 3i
2-53
Si 32
4i
4
1955-56
.. 3J
2-52
3i 32
6or4i
4
(a) The standard rate at ■which the Keserve Bank of India is pre-
.pared to buy or rediscount bills of exchange or other commercial
paper eligible for purchase under the Reserve Bank of India Act.
; (b) Basic advances rate of State Bank for demand loans taken
.to, scheduled banks against government securities.
■j ; (c) The rate at which the State Bank discounts first class three
.months commercial bills.
’ ^ ' (d) The general advances rate at which the State Banlr grants
■advances to the public against gdvenrment securities.
{Report of Currency & Finance, 1955-56).
PUBLIC FINANCE
Indian’s Public Finance — ^Under the Constitution of India, the
power to raise funds has been divided between the Centre and the
States. So there is more than one budget and one public treasury in
the country. In fact there is a number of consolidated funds of India.
In accordance with Article 266 of the Constitution, the Central and
State Governments are required to set up the "Consolidated Fnnd of
India" and the "Consolidated F^inda of the States respectively.” All
revenues received by the Government of India and the Government
of a State are to be credited in their respective consolidated funds.
No money is to be, appropriated from the Consolidated Fund of India
or of a State except in accordance with an Appropriation Act, passed
by Parliament or the legislature of the State concerned. Provision
has also been made for the establishment of a Contingency Fund of
India and a Contingeeny Fund for each State to meet unforeseen
expenditure pending proper authorisation by the appropriate
legislature.
The Constitution provides for the appointment of a Comptroller
and Auditor-General of India by the President to keep wateh on tho
finances and accounts of the Union and the States. It is his respon-
sibility to see that the expenses voted by Parliament or the legisla-
ture of a State and laid down in the Appropriation Act are not ex-
ceeded and varied.
Towards tho be^nning of the financial year in April, the esti-
mates of receipts and expenditure are presented to Parliament by the
Central Government and before the lepslaturcs by the State Govern-
ment, and no expenditure can bo incurred without a specific grant
being made for that puipose. Certain routine items of expenditure
which cannot await legislative sanction are however, non-votable.
These items are chargeable to the Consolidated Fund of India or
those of the State Governments concerned.
Allocation of revenue — ^The main source of the Central revenues
are customs duties, excises, the Corporation and income taxes, estate
and succession duty on non-agricidtural assets and property and the
earnings of the mints. Besides the railway and posts and telegraphs
contribute to the general revenue of the Centre. As much as 90 per
cent of the total central revenue is derived from the customs and
Union excise duties and the Corporation and income taxes.
The main heads of revenue in the State budgets are the taxes
other than tho union taxes, earnings from forests, fisheries and State
enterprises and subventions and ^ants-in-aid from the Union. More
than half of the income tax levied by the Central Government ac-
crues to tho States. Taxes on aprricultural income constitute an ex-
clusively state subject. Other State sources include excise duties
on liquors, opium and other narcotics, sales tax, taxes on consump-
tion or sale of electricity, taxes on goods and passengers carried by
road or on inland, waterways, taxes on certain vehicles including
232
HINDUSTAN YEAK-BOOK
tram cars, taxes on animals and boats, tolls, taxes on proiessions,
trades, callings and employment, capitation taxes, stamp duties and
taxes on luxuries and amusements.
Devolution of taxes and grants-in-aid. — ^A major change in res-
pect of devolution of taxes and grants-in-aid to State Governments
took place in 1952-53 as a result of the acceptance of the Finance
Commission’s recommendation by the Government of India.
(1) An increase in the States’ share of the net proceeds of in-
come tax from 50 p.c. to 55 p.c. of which four-fifths wBl be allocated
on the basis of population and the balance on the basis of collection
(2) allocation of 40 p.c. of the net proceeds of Union excise duties
to States on a population basis (3) an increase in grants-in-aid to
Assam, Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal in lieu of a share in the
export duty on jute and jute products (4) additional grants-in-aid to
certain States which are in need of assistance and special grants to
certain less-developed States for expansion of primary education
facilities.
Taxation — A. Taxation Enquiry Commission was constituted in
April 1953 to examine inter alia, the incidence of the tax system in
India, its suitability with reference to the country’s development
programme and the resources required for it, and the objective of
reducing inequalities of income and wealth ; the effects of taxation
of income on capital formation and maintenance and development of
productive enterprise ; and the use of taxation as a fiscal instru-
ment in dealing with inflationary and deflationary situations. The
Report contains far-reaching recommendations for widening and
deepening the tax structure with a view to raising finance for deve-
lopmental purposes without jeopardising investment and employment
in the private sector. This objective is to be achieved through in-
creases in the rates of income and commodity taxation as well as
an extension of their coverage both as the Centre and in the States,
and through adjustments in the scheme of taxation, including reduc-
tion in its level at points, with a view to stimulating capital forma-
tion and development of productive enterprise.
Finance Commission — Art. 280 lays down that President,
shall within two years from the commencement of the Constitu-
tion and_ there-after at the expiration of every fifth year or at such
earlier time as the President considers necessary, constitute a
Finance Commission. It shall be the duty of the Commission to
make recommendations as to (a) the distribution between the Union
and the States of the net proceeds of taxes which are to be
or may be divided' between them and "the allocation between the
States of the respective shares of such proceeds (6) the principles
which should govern the grants-in-aid of the revenues of the States;
out _ of the Consolidated Fund of India and (c) the continuance or
modification of the. terms of any agreement entered into by the Gov-
ernment of India v^th the govt.-'of any Part' B 'States (d) any .other
matter referred to the Commission by the President in the interest of
sound finance.
A Finance Commission has been appointed under Article 280 (1)
of the Constitution for a period of fifteen months commencing from
PUBLIC FINANCE
233
June 1, 1956. This is the second Finance Commission, the first having
submitted its report on December 31, 1962. The Commission will
make recommendations regarding the distribution of divisible Central
taxes, the principle which should govern the grants-in-aid from the
Centre to the States and the continuance or modification of the terms
of agreements entered into by the Central Government and Part B.
States. The Commission will also go into the following matters (1)
the sums which may be prescribed as ^ants-in-aid to Assam, Behar,
Orissa and West Bengal in lieu of assignment of a share of the net
proceeds of export duty on jute and jute products, (2) assistance by
way of grants-in-aid under Article 275 to such states as are in need
of assistance for 2nd Plan (3) the method of distribution of the Estate
Duty among States, (4) the terms which can be apporpriately fixed
for different kinds of Central loans to the States.
UNION GOVERNMENT BUDGET
REVENUE ACCOUNT
1955- 56 (Revised Estimates) — ^The revised estimates for 1956-56
place revenue Rs. 20 crores higher and expenditure Rs 10 crores
lower than the budget estimates ; the deficit of Rs. 17.4 crores in the
budget estimates thus turns into a surplus of Rs. 12.3 crores.
1956- 57 (Budget Estimates) — ^The budget estimates for 1956-67
place expenditure substantially higher at Rs. 636 crores than the
levised estimate of Rs. 482 crores for 1955-56. Since revenue at
existing tax levels would be lower by Rs. 10 crores, at Rs. 484 crores,
the deficit for 1956-67 is placed at Rs. 62 crores. The fall in
revenue is mainly under customs duties. The bulk of the increase
in expenditure is accounted for by developmental services (Rs. 30
crores) and defence services (Rs. 19 crores). To cover the revenue
deficit, tax proposals involving changes in both direct and in-
direct taxes were made, estimated to yield to the Centre an addi-
tional revenue of Rs. 84.16 crores. Subsequently certain minor con-
cessions mainly in respect of Corporation taxes and tax on registered
firms and their partners were given, the revenue effect of which is
not expected to be more than Rs. 60 lakhs. The revenue deficit is
now placed at Rs. 18 crores.
CAPITAL ACCOUNT
The Capital Account shows small surpluses of Rs. 6.6 crores and
3Rs, 18 crores in 1955-56 and 1956-57 as compared to a deficit of
Rs. 62 crores in 1954-65. These are, however, only formal and if
snot receipts under Treasury bills are excluded, the deficits on capital
account amount to Rs. 189 crores, Rs. 234 crores and Rs. 338
crores respectively for 1954-65, 1955-66 (R. E.) and 1956-67 (B. E.).
The deficits arc largely due to the stepping up of capital outlay,
which (excluding State Trading Schemes) has increased from Rs. 104
crores m 1954-56 to Rs. 181 crores in 1956-66 (R. E.) and Rs. 307
■crores in 1966-57.
In 1956-56 the Central Government issued a market loan for
Rs. 100 crores. The total subscriptions amounted to Rs. 104 crores.
Allowing for repayments, net market borrowing during the year
amounted to Rs. 33 crores.
234
HINDUSTAN YEAE-HOOK
Capital receipts for 1956-57 are estimated at Es. 704 crores in-
cluding of internal loan, small savings, and foreign assistance on the
disbursements side, substantial increases are estimated for 1956-57 as
compared to 1954-55 and 1955-56 in loans to States and in capital
outlay. The most significant increases are in respect of industrial
development and railways.
REVENUE & EXPENDITURE OF THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
(REVENUE ACCOUNT)
(Crores of Rupees)
Revenue
(1) Taxes on Income . . 103.64 118.54 126.65
(-f 7.94) o
(2) Taxes on Commodities &
Services (ie. Customs, Im-
ports & Exports etc.) . . 293.31 305.27 295.73
(+ 24.90)®
(3) Taxes on Property & Capital
Transactions (i.e. Estate
Duty, Stamp, Registration,
Land Revenue)
2.31
2.30
2.31
(4) Total Tax Revenue (l-{-2-l-3)
399.26
426.11
424.69
(5) Administrative Receipts
12.96
16.56
(-b 32.84) ®
13.46
(6) Net Contributions of Public
Undertakings
26.92
27.75
24.85
(7) Other Revenue
10.72
24.16
(-{- 0.95) ®
21.42 ■
(8) Total Revenue (4-l-5-|-6-l-7)
449.86
494.58
484.42 ,
Total Expenditure
416.35
482.27
(33.79 ®
536.25
Surplus (-f) or Deficit (— ) ..
-f 33.51
-f- 12.31
—18.04 b
(Report on
Currency & Finance
1955-56).
CAPITAL BUDGET OP THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
(Crores of Rupees)
. 1954-55 . 1955-56 1956-59
.(Accounts) (Revised) (Budgsi)
TOTAL RECEIIPTS .. ■ 409.64 556.21 704.26
Surplus + or deficit ( — ) .. — 52.20 -f5.52 -1-18.63
TOTAL DISBURSEMENTS .. 461.84, 550.69 685.63
(a) Effect of Budget proposals and' subsequent concessions.
(b) Taking into account the effect of budget proposals and sub-
sequent concessions.
PUBLIC FINANCE
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PUBLIC DEBT
Central Goremment Debts
GENERAL — The rising trend in the interest-bearing obligations
•of the Government of India since 1948-49 continued in 1955-56 with
a further increase of Rs. 273 crores to Rs. 3,312 crores. The net in-
crease during Five-Year period 1951-56 amounted to Rs. 750 crores.
Of the outstanding total as at the end of March 1956, internal obliga-
tions amounted to Rs. 3,171 crores and external debt Rs. 141 crores.
The total interest-bearing obligations are estimated to show a rise of
Rs. 586 crores to Rs. 3,898 crores at the close of March 1957, mainly
due to an expansion of Rs. 356 crores under floating debt.
Interest-yielding assets of the Government of India stood at
Rs. 2,468 crores at the end of 1955-56 or Rs. 202 crores higher than
at the end of 1954-55 and constituted three-fourths of the .total
interest-bearing obligations. Interest-yielding assets are estimated
to show a further sharp rise of Rs. 528 crores to Rs. 2,996 crores by
the close of 1956-57.
Composition of Debt — ^At the close of 1955-56, the total rupee
•debt of the Government of India amounted to Rs. 3,062 cgores as
against Rs. 2,844 crores at the end of 1954-55. Of this, debt on account
•of rupee loans amounted to Rs. 1,509 crores in 1955-56. During
1955-56, outstanding Treasury bills showed a rise of Rs. 123 crores
to Rs. 695 crores as against an increase of Rs. 137 crores in the pre-
vious year, the increase over the five years ended March 1956 amount-
ing to Rs. 237 crores.
Repatriation of Sterling Debt — ^During 1955-66 debt of the face
■value of £0.03 million was repatriated at a cost of Rs. 0.03 crores.
'The total sterling debt repatriated upto the close of 1966-66 amount-
•ed £329.1 million and the rupee counter parts created totalled
Rs. 274.2 orores.
SmaU Savings — ^During 1956-56 net receipts from small savings
xecorded a 13 per cent rise; gross receipts and repayments totalled
Rs. 197 crores and Rs. 135 crores as against Rs. 177 crores and,
Rs. 122 crores respectively in 1954-55.
Government Balances and ways and means Advances — ^During
1965-56, cash balances of the Central Government with the Reserve
Bank of India and at Government Treasuries showed a net decline of
Rs. 38.1 crores to a debt balance of Rs. 4.6 crores; the net decline
•during the five-year period 1951-66 amounted to Rs. 166 crores. ■
PUBLIC DEBT
237
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ANNUAL TREASURY BILLS
(Annual & Monthly)
(In Lakhs of Rupees)
Year
Amount
sold
Average
yield p.c.
per annum
Amount
sold in
favour
of the
Reserve
Bank
13,94,35
Amount
outstanding
at the end
of the
period
1950-51
3,58,02
1951-52
• * • •
2-22
13,35,50
3,14,34
1952-53
. . 42,00
2-45
12,36,50
3,15,29
1953-54
. . 56,51
2-53
13,09,06
3,34,95
1954-55
. . 23,50
2-68
15,23,81
4,71,87
1955-56
. . 55,50
2.52
19,94,11
3,95,25
INTEREST-BEARING OBLIGATIONS AND INTEREST-
YIELDING ASSETS OF THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
(Lakhs of Rupees)
1 INTEREST-BEARING
OBLIGATIONS
1962-53
1953-54
1954-55
1955-56
1956-57
(Budget)
In India
2,499,73
2,553,85
2,899,98
3,170,82
13,721,14
In England
30,23
28,97
27,26
28,20
22,26
Dollar Loans
113,74
111,80
111,91
117,57
144,94
U.S.S.R. Loan
—
—
—
—
9,20
TOTAL INTEREST-
BEARING OBLIGA-
TIONS
2,643,70
2,694,62
3,039,15
3,311,59
3,897,54
II INTEREST-YIEL-
DING ASSETS
(Total)
1,862,86
2,003,83
2,266,08
2,468,29
2,995,96
( (Report on
Ciirrency & Finance
, 1955-56)
DEBT POSITION OF THE GOVERNJIENT OF INDIA
(Crores of Rs.)
O
•a
1
03
■Sc
hlarkoi
Rupee
Loans
S
CO
E-.CS)
-o £>
H'S
<3 «
1952
1,403.51
332.51
372.57
1953
1,403.58
315.44
412.61
1954
1,364,27
334,95
450,51
1955
1,474.39
471.87
505.70
1956
1,508.67
595.25
668.20
o
•a
•»«4
• e
"b
O
o
H-i-
EjtS
O o
Ek
a.-s—
351.24
2,459,83
—0.9
136.99
361.82
2,493,45
-1-1.4
138.53
355,44
2,505,17
-4-0.5
136.44
391.97
2,843,93
-fl3.5
133.20
390.29
3,062,41
-4-7.7
138.78
238
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
CENTRAL GOVERNMENT LOANS
(Outstanding as on March 31, 1956)
{Lakhs of Rupees)
3 % Victory Loan 1957 1,14,06,89
31% National Plan
3 % Loan 1958
50,34,63
Bonds 1961
75,29,00
4J% Loan 1958-68
5,85,73
3 % Loan 1986 or
3 % 2hd Victory Loan
1959-61
1,13,65,64
later (Conver-
23% Loan 1960 ‘
45,63,07
sion Loan of
-
4 % Loan 1960-70
63,30,26
1946)
2,48,91,47
21% Loan 1961
57,00,69
3 % Non-terminable
21% Loan 1962
75,86,72
Loan 1896-97
8,93,35
•3 % Loan 1963-65
1,16,17,46
31% National Plan
3 % Loan 1964
30,33,10
Loan 1964
1,58,17,34
3 % Funding Loan
31 National Plan
1966-64
1,10,11,78
Bond 1965
1,03,67,92
3 % 1st Dev. Loan
1970-75
1,15,05,83
(2nd Series)
15,08,67,34
23% Loan 1976
14,77,48
Loans not bearing
21% Bhopal War
interest
3,14,84
Bonds 1957
26-25
-3 % Bhopal Loan
TOTAL
15,11,82,18
1966-76
1,21,73
PRINCIPAL ITEMS OF SJIALL SAVINGS
{Annual & Monthly — Lakhs of Rupees)
Total gross
Total
Repay-
Total .net
Total : out-
T1951-52
Receipts
ments
Receipts ■
• standings
. . 1,45,26
1,06,72
' 38,54
1,40,80
1952-53
. . 1,46,83
1,06,78
40,05
1,80,85
1953-54
. . 1,52,71
1,14,81
' 37,90
2,18,75
1954-55
. . 1,77,32
1,22,13
55,19
'2,73,94
1955-56
. . 1,97,22
1,34,72 ' .
■ ■ 62,60
■ 3,36,44
TOTAL OF ALL POSTAL SAVINGS
• {Lakhs of Rupees)
Total gross
Total re-
Total net
Total
1950-51
receipts
payments
receipts
outstandings
. . 1,30,09
96,65
30,44
. 1,02,27 ,
1951-52
. . 1,45,26
1,06,72
38,54
1,40,81
1952-53
. . 1,46,83
1,06,78
40,05
1,80,86 ■
-1953-54
, . 1,52,71
1,14,81
37,90
2,18,76
:l964-65
. . 1,72,66
1,20,99
51,67
• 2,70,43 .
STATES’ BUDGETS
PART A STATES
REVENUE ACCOUNT. — The consolidated budgetary position
of Part A States on revenue account since 1952-53 is shown below : —
(Crores of Rupees)
. 1952-53
1953-54
1954-55
(R.E.)
1955-56
(B.E.)
1956-57
Revenue
318.2
347.0
368.1
420.8
426.1
Expenditure
318.3
347.1
384.0
471.4
488.9
Surplus(-f )or Deficit(— )
-0.1
-0.1
-15.9
—50.6
-^62.8
Deficit ( — ) exclusive of
Revenue Reserve Fund
Transactions
-12.1
-0.1
-19.6
-60.7
-65.4
GENERAL — Budgets of Part A States show deficits on revenue
account in all years during the period 1951-56 except in 1951-52.
Aggregate net deficit during the First Plan period taking into account
revised estimates for 1955-56, amounts to Rs. 95 crores, part of which
being financed through withdrawals from Revenue Reserve Funds ;
the total amount so withdrawn is placed at Rs. 35 crores. In
1955-56, while a significant rise in expenditure has been indicated,
revenue does not show a commensurate rise.
1955- 56 -(Revised Estimates) — Revenue and expenditure were
both higher than budget estimates by about Rs. 22 crores, the deficit
remaining virtually unaltered at Rs. 51 crores. While both tax and
non-tax revenue showed increases, the bulk of the increase
in non-tax revenue was accounted for by transfers from revenue
reserve funds (Rs. 10.1 crores). On the expenditure side, non-
development services accounted for the major part of the rise,
mainly under famine relief, the provision made for this item being
Rs. 17.5 crores as against Rs. 4.2 crores in the budget estimates.
1956- 57 (Budget Estimates) — With revenue higher by Rs. 6
crores and expenditure by Rs. 18 crores oyer 1955-56, the deficit is
substantially higher at Rs. 63 crores. Dispite the large deficits,
only a few States have made specific proposals for additional taxation,
which are estimated to yield an aggregate additional revenue of over
Rs. 10 crores.
Capital Accounts — ^Receipts on capital account have increased
from Rs. 130 crores in 1951-52 to Rs. 290 crores in 1955-56 (R.E.),
while disbursements have risen only from Rs. 146 crores to Rs. 275
crores in the same period. During the five year 1951-52 to 1955-56,
the annual developmental outlay has increased by Rs. 100 crores to
to Rs. 180 crores. The comfortable position on capital account is
largely due to Central loan assistance which has increased from
240
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Rs. 67 crores in 1951-52 to Rs. 227 crores in 1955-56 (R.E.). In
1956-57 also, a surplus of Rs. 12 crores is envisaged.
PART B STATES BUDGET
REVENUE ACCOUNT
General — The table below gives the budgetary position on
revenue account of Part B States —
(Crores of Rupees)
1952-53
1953-54
1954-55
1955-56
1956-57
Revenue
102-0
106.6
116.4
(R.E.'i
118.5
(B.E.)
128.3
Expenditure
98.7
101.1
111.6
133.7
141.8
Surplus ( -f )
or deficit( — )
-f3.3
-t-5.5
-h4.8
-15.2
—13.5
Surplus(-f) or deficit(— )
exclusive of revenue re-
serve fund transactions
-f3.3
-t-4.7
4-4.8
4-0.6
-16.3
Unlibe Part A States which had a revenue account surplus only
in 1951-52, Part B States had a deficit only in 1955-56 (R.E.) and
consequently for the Plan period as a whole there was a net surplus
of Rs. 4.6 crores.
1956-37 Budget Estimates — ^Budget estimates for 1956-57 place
revenue at Rs. 128 crores or Rs. 10 crores higher than 1955-56 and
expenditure at Rs. 142 crores or Rs. 8 crores higher. The deficit is,
therefore, lower by Rs. 2 crores at Rs. 13 crores. Development ex-
penditure is expected to rise by Rs. 8 crores over 1955-66. A part of
the deficit is to be covered by additional tax proposals anticipated to
yield Rs. li crores.
Capital Account — Receipts and disbursements of Part B States
on capital account which amounted to Rs. 35 crores and Rs. 42 crores,
respectively, in 1951-52 were Rs. 84 crores and Rs. 83 crores in
1955-56. Unlike Part A States and despite an increase of Central
loan assistance from Rs. 7 crores to Rs. 62 crores, during the Plan
period. Part B States show net deficit of Rs. 20 crores on capital ac-
count. During 1955-56 three Part B States entered the market for
loans, net borrowing amounting to Rs. 9 crores.
PART C STATES’ BUDGETS
The combined revenue account of six Part C States,* namely Aj-
mer, Bhopal, Coorg, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh and Vindhya Pradesh is
as follows — From a revenue account surplus of Rs. 1.6 crores in 1953-
64, Part C States show increasing revenue deficits in next three years,
with estimated deficits of Rs. 59 lakhs in 1955-56 and Rs. 1.0 crore
in 1956-57 while expenditure has increased from Rs. 12.1 crores in
1952-53 to Rs. 21.4 crores in 1955-56 and Rs. 23.7 crores in 1956-57,
‘Figure relate to the undivided state of Madras.
STATES’ BUDGETS
241
revenue does not sViow a similar increase and moreover, about half
the increase in revenue is accounted for by Central grants and
contributions.
BUDGETARY POSITION OF PART A STATES’^
(On Revenue Account — In Lakhs of Rupees)
MADRAS
Total
Revenue
Total
Expenditure
Stirplus-)-
Deficit—
1953-64 1
. . 64,38
64,38
1954-55
. . 42,36
46,27
— 3,92
1955-6G (Revised)
. . 51,63
63,84
— 2,21
1966-67 (Budget)
BOMBAY
. . 69,63
61,19
— 1,66
1963-64
. . 71,03
69,88
+ 1,15
1964-65
. . 78,01
70,08
+ 7,93
1965-56 (Pujvised)
. . 78,16
77,33
+ 87
1966-67 (Budget)
WEST BENGAL
. . 76,34
76,11
+ 23
1963-64
. . 37,46
44,35
- 6,89
1964-55
. . 41,96
48,46
64,76
- 6,50
1965-66 (Revised)
. . 49,67
-15,09
1966-67 (Budget)
VTTAR PRADESH
. . 48,46
62,65
-14,19
1963-54
. , 71,39
68,56
+ 2,83
1954-65
. , 72,82
72,21
+ 6
1965-66 (Revised)
. . 79,03
79,03
1956-67 (Budget)
PUNJAB
. . 77,97
87,52
- 9,55
1953-54
. . 19,76
18,90
+ 86
1954-55
. . 21,83
19,55
+ 2,28
1966-66 (Revised)
. . 26,76
29,45
- 2,69
1966-57 (Budget)
BIHAR
. . 28,76
29,23
- 47
1963-54
. . 33,17
31,10
+ 2,07
1954-66
. . 35,35
41,48
- 6,13
1955-56 (Revised)
. . 39,24
59,42
-20,18
1966-67 (Budget) .. 42,87
MADHYA PRADESH
63,76
-20,88
1953-54
. . 24,02
23,77
+ 25
1954-56
. . 27,22
27,76
- 64
1966-57 (Budget)
. . 42,87
63,75
+ 61
1955-56 (Budget)
. . 29,18
33,00
— 3,82
♦Transactions of Kutch, Manipur and Tripura are included in the
Central Budget, while those of Bilaspur arc in Himachal Pradesh.
fFigurcs relate to the undivided State of Madras.
16
242
HINDUSTAN
YEAE-BOOK
ASSAill
1953-54
. . 13,90
13.31
59
1954-55
. . 15,71
18,69
—
2,98
1955-56 (Revised)
. . 20,82
21,80
—
98
1956-57 (Budget)
. . 21,15
24,80
—
3,65
ORISSA
1953-54
. . 11,89
12,83
94
1954-55
. . 13,56
15,05
—
1,49
1955-56 (Revised)
. . 19,27
26,15
—
6,88
1956-57 (Budget)
. . 18,71
24,32
—
5,61
ANBERA
1954-55
. . 19,31
24,49
5,18
1955-56 (Revised)
. . 21,86
25,83
—
3,97
1966-57 (Budget)
. . 23,11
26.36
—
3,25
TOTAL BUDGETARY POSITION OF PART A STATES
{On Revenue account — In Lakhs of Rupees)
Revenue
Expenditure
Surplus +
Total
Total
Deficit-'
1951-52
. . 3,04,80
2,98,31
+ 6,49
1952-53
. . 3,18,15
3,18,29
- 14
1953-54
. . 3,47,00
3,47,08
- 8
1954-55
. . 3,68,12
3,84,04
-15,92
1955-56 (Revised)
. . 4,20,81
4,71,37
—50.56
1956-57 (Budget)
. . 4,26,08
4,88,93
-62;85
BUDGETARY POSITION OF PART B STATES
(On Revenue Accounts)
{In Lakhs of Ruyyces)
HYDERABAD
Revenue
Expenditure
Stirplus
Deficit -
1953-54
. . 25,35
26,49
- 1,14
1954-55
. . 27,17
28,02
— 85
1955-56 (Revised)
. . 24,37
27,58
— 3,21
1956-57 (Budget)
MYSORE
. . 25,59
29,89
— 4,30
1953-54
. . 15,13
15,24
— 11
1954-55
. . 16,12
16,55
— 43
1955-56 (Revised)
. . 17,60
20,29
— 2,69
1956-57 (Budget) .. 18,30
TRAVANCORE-CO CHIN
22,19
- 3,89
1953-54
. . 16,18
13,86
-f 2,32
1954-55
. . 16,68
12,03
+ 4,83
1955-56 (Revised)
. . 17,42
18,83
- 1,41
1956-57 (Budget)
. . 17,96
21,04
- 3,08
STATES’ BUDGETS 243
RAJASTHAN
1953-B4
18,51
17,98
+ 53
1954-55
21,93
20,04
-f 1,89
1955-56 (Revised)
20,95
23,42
~ 2,47
1956-5Y (Budget)
24,09
26,79
- 1,70
PEPSU
1953-54
6,88
6,72
+ 16
1954-55
7,57
8,93
- 1,36
1955-5G (Revised)
7,76
10,42
- 2,67
1956-57 (Budget)
19,81
9,34
+ 47
JSAVRASHTRA
1953-54
10,66
8,42
+ 2,14
1954-55
12,29
12,27
+ 2
1955-56 (Revised)
13,50
16,32
- 2,82
1956-57 (Budget)
14,12
15,18
- 1,06
MADHYA BHARAT
1953-54
14,05
12,41
+ 1,64
1954-55
14,50
13,71
+ 79
1955-56 (Revised)
16,92
16,80
-1- 12
1956-67 (Budget)
18,41
18,39
+ 2
TOTAL BUDGETARY POSITION OF PART B STATES
{Lakhs of Rtipece)
Total Revenue Total expenditure
Surplus +
Deficits—
1951-62
. 1,00,64
94,37
+ 6,17
1952-63
. 1,01,99
98,74
-f 3,26
1953-64
. 1,06,66
1,01,12
-f 6,54
+ 4,89
1954-55
,
. 1,16,44
1,11,55
1955-56
(Revised)
. 1,18,51
1,33,66
-16,16
1956-57
(Budget)
. 1,28,28
1,41,82
-13,64
BUDGETARY POSITION OF PART C STATES
(On Revenue Account — Lakhs of Rupees)
Total
AJMER
Revenue
Total Expenditure
SurphtsA-
Deficit—
1953-64
1,00
1,45
-f 15
1954-55
. 1,54
1,64
- 10
1955-66 (Revised)
2,54
2,54
—
1956-57 (Budget)
2,56
2,56
—
BHOPAL
1953-54
2,18
2,21
— 3
1954-55
. 2,00
2,68
- 8
1955-56 (Revised)
. 3,59
3,65
— 6
1956-57 (Budget)
. 3,34
3A1
— 7
244
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
DELHI
1953-54
4,18
3,81
+
37
1954-55
4,40
4.18
"i"
22
1955-56 (Revised)
5,31
5,78
—
47
1956-57 (Budget)
6,14
6,60
—
46
HIMACHAL PRADESH
1953-54
1,99
1,92
4 -
7
1954-55
2,19
2.21
—
2
1955-56 (Revised)
3,04
3,06
—
2
1956-57 (Budget)
3, So
3,85
—
(a)
YINDHYA PRADESH
1953-54
4,42
3,47
4*
95
1954-55
4,03
4,53
. —
50
1955-56 (Revised)
5,18
4,96
4~
22
1956-57 (Budget)
5,64
5,74
—
10
COORG
1953-54
91
86
4~
5
1954-55
95
99
—
4
1955-56 (Revised)
1,17
1,42
—
25
1956-57 (Budget)
1,09
1,48
—
39
TOTAL
1952-53
12,35
12,10
4 "
25
1963-54
15,28
13,72
4 *
1,56
1954-55
15,70
16,23
53
1955-56 (Revised)
20,81
21,40
—
59
1956-57 (Budget)
22,62
23,64
—
1,02
2. STATE GO\^RNMENT DEBTS
Debt Position — Gross debt of Part A States, ■w'hicb had increased
by Rs. 175 crores in 1954-55, increased by another Rs. 244 crores in
1955-56 to Rs. 965 crores, the increase during the five years 1951-56
amounting to Rs. 720 crores. A substantial part of the increae over
the five years was accounted for by loans from the Centre, which rose
by Rs. 571 crores to Rs. 726 crores; permanent debt also rose signi-
ficantly by Rs. 126 crores to Rs. 185 crores. As regards the gross debt
of part B States provisional estimates indicate an increase of Rs. 68
crores in 1955-56 and of Rs. 15.4 crores in 1951-56.
State loans — The States' borrowing programme comprised the
floatation on August 16, 1955 by ten States of 4 per cent 12-yeaT‘
loans for an aggregate amount of Rs. 35.75 crores and, again on
August 30 of a second series of the same loan by seven of these States
for a further Rs. 11.75 crores. Total subscription received amounted
to Rs. 51.34 crores and Rs. 16.43 crores, the amount allotted being
Rs. 42.27 crores and Rs. 12.79 crores. The proceeds of the loans were
intended for financing capital expenditure in connection with the deve-
lopment programme.
(a) - A small sturplus of Rs. 32,000.
states’ budgets
245
STATE GOVERNMENT LOANS
(As on 31st March, 1956 — Lakhs of Rupees)
A. Part A States
Amount
outstanding
MADHYA PRADESH
3% Loan 1956 .. 50,54
3% „ 1958 . . 52,70
3% „ 1960 . . 1,01,45
Si.% „ 1962 .. 1,02,18
4% Dev. loan 1963 . . 1,10,18
•SVo „ „ 1964 . . 2,03,29
4% M. P. Loan 1967 . . 1,63,12
■BOMBAY
3% Loan 1956 . . 2,97,18
3% „ 1958 .. 3,06,66
3% Dev. Loan 1960 . . 2,87,82
3% Bom. Tapi Irriga-
tion & Dev. Loan 1961 67,96
•3% Dev. loan 1962 . . 5,53,56
Si% Dev. loan 1962 ., 2,95,25
4% Do 1963 . . 6A2,28
4% Do 1964 .. 3,55,87
4% Do 1967 .. 10,02,21
37,08,79
ANDHRA
Andhra Dev. Loan 1967
BIHAR
4% Bihar Dev. Loan 1963 1,31,29
3% Loan 1961-66
3h% „ 1962
4% Dev. loan 1963
4% Dev. loan 1964
4% „ 1967
3i% U.P.E.E. Acts
Bonds
Amount
outstanding
1,57,14
1,91,02
5,65,16
6,11,45
9,62,54
1,68,93
7,83,46
MADRAS
3% Loan 1956
3% „ 1958
3% Loan 1959
3% Dev. Loan 1960
3% Dev. Bonds I960
23% Loan 1961
„ 1962
4% Govt. Loan 1963
4% Loan 1964
4% Dev. Loan 1967
5,00,16 WEST BENGAL
ZWo W. B. Loan 1962
4% W. B. Loan 1963 .
4% Do Do 1967 1,54,02 4% „ „ 1964
4% „ „ 1967
VTTAR PRADESH
3% Loan 1960
.23% „ 1961
2,85,31
2,17,90
2,20,94
33,72,19
1,25,10
1.07.95
1.23.96
2,78,44
4,38,25
3,81,77
3,01,49
10,33,70
5,24,81
10,47,17
43,62,64
1,75,00
3,60,23
2,00,00
7,58,72
14,93,95
Total Part A States 1,45,06,50
B. Part B States
4% Hyderabad Dev, Loan 3% Do Do 1956-61 5,99,78
1963 ., 3,34,71 3% Mysore Loan 1958 5,08,06
47o Do Do 1967 .. 2,12,42 4% State Dev. Loan
4% M. P. Dev. Loan 1967 .. 3,54,94
1963 .. 1,04,78 Mysore (Total) .. 20,92,05
4% Mysore Dev. Loan 4% Saurashtra Dev.
1963 . . 3,33,47 Loan 1963 . . 1,13,16
5% Jlysore Loan 1955 1,63,44
4% Do Do 1953-61 2,95,86
246
HINDUSTAN 'YEAE-BOOK
Saurashtra State Loan 4% Travancore-Cochin
1964 . . 2,52,00 Dev. Loan 1963 . . 3,25,61
4% Do Do 1967 . . 3,61,66
Total Part B States . . 37,96,36
Saurashtra Total . . 7,26,82 Total (Parts A & B
States) 1,83,02,89
CONSOLIDATED DEBT POSITION OF PART A STATES
{Lakhs of Rupees)
I. Public Debt
1951-52
1952-53
1953-54
1954-65 1955-66
(R.E.)
{a) Permanent debt
69,11
80,44
105,37
118,61
184,96
(b) Floating debt
(c) Loans from Central
2,62
19,10
21
4,47
••
Govt.
217,23
281,69
397,86
648,52
726,27
II. Unfunded Debt
III. Gross total Debt
33,92
37,52
42,11
49,23
64,12
(total of I and II)
IV. Appropriation for re-
duction or avoidance
322,88
418,75
645,55
720,83
965,35
Debt
6,58
8,14
6,42
8,87
13,31
{Report on Currency & Finance 1955-56).
NEW STATES GOVERNMENT 4 P.C. LOANS OF 1956
{All the loans will be repaid on Srd September, 196S except that of
the Government of Bombay which will be repaid on Srd Sept., 1970),
Rupees {lakhs) Rs. {lakhs}
*Govt. of Andhra . . 600 Govt, of Orissa . . 300
Govt, of Bihar . . 200 Govt, of Punjab . . 200
Govt, of Bombay . . 750 Govt, of Rajasthan . . 300
Govt, of Hyderabad . . 200 Govt, of Saurashtra . . 260
Govt, of Madhya Bharat 100 Govt, of Travancore-
Govt. of Madhya Pradesh 160 Cochin . . 200
Govt of Madras . . 1,250 Govt, of Uttar Pradesh . . 800
Govt, of Mysore . . 400 Govt, of West Bengal . . 700
Total . . 6,400
AGRICULTURE IN INDIA
IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE IN INDIA— India is one
of the leading agricultural countries in the world and one of the
biggest sources of its wealth is its produce from land. Agriculture
plays a most vital role in our country. It is the basic industry and.
provides employment to about 100 million people. It also contributes
fifty percent of our national income. In addition, a number of agri-
cultural products are exported and earn valuable foreigrn exchange
for the country. Some of our biggest industries like sugar and textiks
depend on agriculture for raw materials.
The world position of Indian agriculture is indeed a big one.
India enjoys a virtual monopoly in lac and leads the world in the
production of groundnut and tea. It is second largest producer
of rice, jute, tobacco, raw sugar, rape seed, sesame and castor seed.
Cereals are the most important item of agricultural production,
being grown on about 60 per cent of the cropped area. Rice accounts
for about half of India’s cereal output ; the other half is accounted
for by a variety of grains including wheat, millet and barley. In
addition to cereal production, 18 per cent of India’s total cropped
area is devoted to pulses, gram and other food crops. Nevertheless,
India does not produce sufficient food for its own needs. One of the
major objectives of the Five-Year Plan is to make India self-sufficient
in foodstaifs by bringing more land under production through irriga-
tion and reclamation and by increasing productivity. Various com-
mercial crops are also significant. Oilseeds, cotton, sugarcane, tea,
coffee, spices, rubber and jute are the most important. Such crops
form the basis of some of major industries and are among the leading
exports either in raw or maniifactured form.
DEFECTS OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE AND SHORTAGE OP
FOOD — ^Indeed the defects of Indian agriculture become evident when
the per acre yield of most crops in India is compared to that of
foreign countries. The average yield per acre of agricultural pro-
ducts in India is comparatively poor. Average production of wheat
per acre in India is about 700 lbs. while it is 1,918 lbs. in
Egypt, 1,713 lbs. in Japan, 898 lbs. in China. As regards rice, pro-
duction of India is about 750 lbs. per acre, while it is 3,444 lbs. per
acre in Japan, 2,998 lbs. per acre in Egypt, 2,433 lbs. per acre in
China and 2,185 lbs. per acre in U.S.A. This bespeaks the backward-
ness of India’s agriculture which by the way is due no less to the
growing lack of soil fertility as to the medieval technique of a^cul-
ture and an almost complete lack of capital to be employed in it. It
may also be said that the production of food was
outstripped by the growth of population. The partition
of the country in 1947 and the consequent separation
from India of the canal irrigated areas of Sind and
the Punjab and the lowlands of East Bengal not only aggravated the
food shortage but also created an acute deficiency in jute and long and
248
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
medium staple cotton. Indian agriculture has to contend with a noto-
riously capricious nature. Draughts alternating with devastating
floods are a common occurrence in one part of the country or another.
Moreover agriculture in India suffers from the impoverishment of soil
and the fragmentation of holdings. All these drawbacks account for
the poverty of the peasant and rural indebtedness.
AREA AND SOIL — The total area available for cultivation is 71.^
crore acres or 88.6 per cent of the total area._ The total area culti-
vated annually is 30.24 crore acres. The cultivated area works out
to 1.2 acres per head of the agricultural population. Forests cover
11.56 crore acres while there are 5.52 crore acres of culturable waste
land and 6.81 crore acre of fallow land.
Four main types of soil are (1) alluvial, (2) black, (3) red and
(4) laterite. The first three are rich in potash and lime, hut defi-
cient in phosphoric acid, nitrogen and humus. The laterite soil
possesses plenty of humus, but lacks most of the other chemical in-
gredients. The alluvial soil is the most fertile and easily worked
and covers almost the entire Indo-Gangetic plain and the narrow
coastal strips girdling peninsular India. Highly retentive of moisture
and sticky, the hlack soil covers the western portion of the Deccan
plateau, while the red soil covers the eastern part. The laterite soil
is found in Central India, Assam and along the Eastern and Western
Ghats.
In addition to four main groups of soils mentioned above, the
desert soils of the sub-continent occupy a large tract in Rajasthan
and the south Punjab. Rajasthan desert alone occupies an area of
40,000 sq. miles.
Saline and Alkali soils also form an important group of Indian
soils. Such soils are characterised by a high degree of impermea-
bility and stickiness together with high alkalinity and frequent pre-
sence of large excess of free salts. They are usually poor in nitrogen
and humus and unsuitable for crop growing without previous recla-
mation. Forest soils occupy a large part of the sub-continent. These
soils belong to brown earth and podsol groups. Marshy and peaty
soils are foimd in coastal areas of Orissa and West Bengal, North-
West Bihar, Almora district of U.P., South-East coast of Madras
and in Travancore-Cochin.
CROPS— The two outstanding features of agricultural production
in India are the wide variety of crops and the preponderance of food
over non-food crops. There is hardly a crop of the tropical, sub-
tropical or temperate zone which is not grown in some part or the
other of this country. Food crops occupy about 86 per cent of the
total sown area. There are two well defined crop seasons: (i) kharif
and (ii) rabi. The kharif crop is harvested in Nov. to Oct. 31 and
rabi crop in May 1 to April 30. The major kharif crops include rice,
jowar, bajra, maize, cotton, sugarcane, sesamum and groundnut ;
the major rabi crops are wheat, barley, tea, gram, linseed, rape,
mustard ; and in South India rice, jowar and cotton.
The seasons for individual crops are as follows — ^Wheat — ^Nov. to
Oct.; Sugarcane — ^Nov. to Oct.; Cotton — Sept, to August ; Jute — July
to June ; Tea — Jan. to Dec.; Coffee — July to June.
AGRICULTURE IN INDIA
249
Classification of Crops of India — ^The crops of India are usually
classified as follows : — (1) Food o'ops such as rice, wheat,
barley, millets, pulses and gram, sugarcane and spices ; Food
■crops occupy more than four-fifths of the cultivated land (2) Oilseeds
such as linseed, rape and mustard, sesamum, castor, groundnut and
-cocoanut ; (3) Fibres such as cotton, jute, hemp and flax ; and (4)
Drugs mid Beverages such as poppy, cinchona, tobacco, tea and coffee.
AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH AND EXTENSION— Research
and extension activities are being cai’ried out by the Indian Council
of Agricidtural Research, the Central Research Institute and the
■Central Commodity Committees.
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research is devoted to the
aim of Increasing agricultural production. The I.C.A.R. was set up
in 1929 to promote, guide and co-ordinate research in the field of
agriculture and animal husbandry throughout India and to link it
with research in foreign countries. The Council’s Advisory Board
■consists of experts repi-esenting the States, the universities and
scientific bodies, while the Governing Body is composed of State
Ministers of Agriculture and the representatives of Parliament and
commercial interests. The Council does not possess any research
institution of its own, but sponsors agricultural research in co-
operation with the State Governments in Central and State
research institutions, universities and recognised private institutions.
The Council mainly concerns itself with schemes of regional or all-
India importance ; schemes of purely local interest is left to the
State Governments. The finances of the I.C.A.R. are obtained from
■^vemment grants, contributions from other sources and the income
from a cess of half per cent imposed on the exports of certain agri-
■cultural products specified in the Agricultural Produce Cess Act,
1940.
The Central Research Institutes are engaged on a variety of
research projects, both fundamental and applied. They conduct
■extensive inquiries to improve the fertility of the soil, the quality of
grass and grass lands. They have evolved certain varieties of crops
which are capable of resisting draught, disease, insects and pests.
India’s largest agricultural research institute is at Delhi and is
popularly known as Fusa Institute. The Indian Agricultural Re-
search Institute was established by the Government of India on April
1, 1905 at Pusa. After the Institute building was wrecked in 1934
by a disasterous earthquake, the Government of India transferred it
to New Delhi. The chief functions of the Institute are to conduct
research in the agricultural sciences with a view to gaining knowledge
■which would help to ameliorate the conditions of Indian apiculture
■and to impart post-graduate training of a high order. The investip-
tions of the Institute are divided into six main divisions — (1) Division
of Botany. (2) Dmsion of Agi'onomy, (3) Division of soil science and
Agricultural Chemistry, (4) Division of Mycology and Plant Patho-
^ogy. (5) Entomology Division, (6) Agricultural Engineering Division.
Central Rice Research Institute Cuttack provides field trials and
research on the agronomy, mycology, entomology, botany and chemis-
■try of rice. The multiplication of improved varieties of rice
250
HINDUSTAN YEAK-BOOK
and experiments in green manuring and in new methods of trans-
plantation are some of its other functions. The Institute has beeci
selected by the F.A.O. as the venue for an international rice breeding
course. Central Potato Institute at Poona is en^ged in evolving-
improved varieties of potatoes capable of giving high yields. Other
potato research stations are — ^Laboratoi’y at Potato Multiplication
Sub-Division, Bhowali (U.P.) and Laboratory at Potato-
Breeding Sub-station, Simla. The Central Vegetable Breeding
Station at Kulu is experimenting on the _ adaptation of"
European vegetables for Indian conditions. It is also investi-
gating on self-fertilised seeds and the manipulation of agricultural
practices to secure increased production. Indian Institute of
Sugar Technology at Kanpur was established in 1936 and is now
maintained by the Indian Central Sugar-cane Committee. It con-
ducts research in different branches of sugar technology, renders-
technical assistance to factories and trains students. The founda-
tion stone of the Indian Institute of Sugar Technology and Sugar-
cane Research at Lucknow was laid in 1953. Forest Research Insti-
tute at Dehra Dun was opened in 1914 and is engaged in research on-
silviculture, forest botany, entomology, the seasoning, preservation-
and the technology of wood, timber mechanics, cellulose and paper
pulp chemistry and on minor forest products. The Institute also pro-
vides training for forest officers. Indian Veterinary Research Insti-
tute at Izatnagar was established in 1890. It has six main research-
divisions and four auxilary sections. In addition to research, the-
Institute undertakes the manufacture of vaccines and trains students.
The Institute has been recognised by F.A.O. as an international train-
ing centre. Indian Dairy Research Institute at Bangalore trains-
students for diploma course in dairying and conducts research on
dairy problems. It is also engaged in the development of
pedigree herds of Red Sindhi and Gir cows. There are two cattle
farms at Kamal and Coimbatore and a creamery at Anand. Among
the other important research stations are the Indian Lac Research
Institute at Namkum, Ranchi, which is engaged in fundamental and
applied research in the entomology and chemistry, three fisheries-
research stations at Barrackpur, Mandapam and Bombay, Indian-
Institute of Fruit Technology, Delhi.
Commodity Committees — The Indian Central Committees for-
cotton, jutOj oilseeds, sugarcane, coconut, arecanut and tobacco operate-
and _ subsidise a number of research schemes at various research
stations and sub-stations. These committees are financed by proceeds-
of a cess le-ried on the particular commodity : —
(1) Indian Central Cotton Committee is concentrating its-
research on the development of long-staple cotton for which India is-
deficient. At the Institute of Plant Industry, Indore important-
research work is undertaken in botany, physiology, breeding and'
genetics of cotton.
(2) Indian Central Jute Committee's research and extension-
work is undertaken by Jute Agricidtural Research Institute,.
Barrackpur, Technological Research Laboratories, Tollyganf, Cal-
cutta Economic Research Section and the Publicity Section. The
AGEICULTURE IN INDIA.
251 ’
Committee also sponsors schemes of fundamental research at the'
'University of Calcutta, Bose Research Institute and Presidency'
College, Calcutta.
(2) Indian Central Oilseeds Committee aims at finding out the-
relative nutritive values of oil-cakes obtained by the expeller and
Ghani process.
(4) Indian Central Sugarcane Committee maintains Indian
Institute of Sugar Technology at Kanpur established in 1936. It con-
ducts research in sugar technology, renders technical assistance to
factories and trains students.
(5) Indian Central Coconut Committee has two research
stations, one each at Kasaragad and Kayangulam and foiir regional
stations (three in Travancore- Cochin and one in Orissa).
(6) Indian Central Arecanut Committee subsidises number of
research schemes. There are three regional arecanut research
stations in Mysore, Travancore-Cochin and South Kanara started)
with the help of the Committee.
(7) Indian Central Tobacco Committee, Madras.
(8) Indian Central Lac Cess Committee, Ranchi.
(9) All India Cattle Show Committee, Kamal, Punjab.
The number of research institutes, stations and farms are also-
maintained by the Central Commodity Committees : —
1. Indian Central Cotton Committee has — (a) Technological
Laboratory, Matunga, Bombay, (b) Institute of Plant Industry,.
Indore,
2. Jute Committee has — (a) Jitte Agricidtnral Research Insti-
tute, Barrachpore (Bengal), (b) Technological Research Labora-
torics, Tollyganj, Calcutta, (c) Economic Research Section, Indian;
Central Jute Commitee, Calcutta.
3. The Tobacco Committee has — (a) Central Tobacco Re-
search Institute, Rajahmundry, (b) Cigar and Cheroot Tobacco Re-
search Station, Vedasandur, (c) Hookah and Chewing Tobacco Re-
search Station, Pusa, Bihar, (d) Cigarette Tobacco Research Sub-
station, Guntur, (e) Wrapper Tobacco Research station, Dinhata,.
Bengal.
4. Sugar Committee has — Sugar Sub-station, Kamal, Punjab.
The Directorate of Economics and Statistics — ^This sole organisa-
tion under the Central Government dealing with all agro-economic-
problems in the sphere of food and agriculture — has continued to-
fulfil its useful role by supplying statistical material, preparing
memoranda on current issues^ of agro-economic policy, besides exa-
mining the progress in the implementation of the first Five-Year
Plan. They issue All India Crop Estimates and All India Rice
Estimates, regular forecasts for small millets.
OWNERSHIP & HOLDINGS— Of the 294 million persons which
the 1951 census estimates as depending for their livelihood on agricul-
ture, roughly 167 million consist of those who o-wn (wholly or main-
ly) and cultivate land and their dependents. About 314 milliom
belongs to the category of cultivators of land not o-wned by thetm
and their dependents. About 45 million consist of cultivating-
252
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
labourers and their dependents and about 5S million are non-culti-
•vating owners, rent receivers and their dependents.
Average holding in India is about 5 acres though the size varies
from State to State. According to the Report of the Famine En-
•quiry Commission, it was 11,7 acres in Bombay, 10 in Punjab, 6 in
IJ.P., 4.5 in Bengal, 4.4 acres in Madras. A greater evil _ than
sub-division is the fragmentation of holdings. It is the biggest
■single obstacle to economic cultivation, leading to increased overhead
•costs and to the under-employment.
Both voluntary method and compulsory method for the consoli-
•dation of holdings have been tried since 1912 to check sub-division
.and fragmentation. Punjab had led the way in voluntary consolida-
tion. Legislation involving varying degrees of compulsion have
therefore been enacted and revised from time to time in the States.
^Efforts have also been made to organise co-operative farming. The
trend of legislation and land policy in recent years has been to pre-
vent the growth of small and uneconomic holdings and concentration
•of land in a few hands. The legislation for the consolidation of
holdings was first passed in Madhya Pradesh in 1928. Uttar Pradesh
(1939), Bombay (1947), Punjab (1936 and 1948), Delhi (1936 and
1948), Jammu and Kashmir and PEPSU have passed similar acts for
•consolidation of holdings.
AGRICULTURAL POLICY — The growing shortage of food had
been the main feature of the Indian agriculture for the last 30 or 35
-years. The acute food-shortage was brought out prominently during
the Bengal famine of 1943. This food shortage was due to the
•various causes such as phenomenal increase of population outstripp-
ing production of food, partition of the country, etc. So various
Tueans were undertaken by the government to increase the food pro-
-duction of the country. From the famine year of 1953, Grow More
Food Campaign vfas initiated. The shortage of food which
India began to e:^erience during the "iVorld War II reached to an
^icute stage. During first four years of starting of Grow More Food
-Campaign, grants and loans were given by the Centre to the States
to enable them to increase production. Central assistance was
however given only for specific programmes — Such as works schemes
and supply schemes. Works schemes include the construction and
repair of wells, tanks, small dams, channels and tube-wells, and the
installation of water-lefting appliances such as pumps etc. Also
included in this class were the schemes of contour-bunding and the
clearance and reclamation of waste land. Supply schemes covered
the distribution of fertilizers and manures and improved seeds.
The rapid gro-wth in the use of fertilisers is due mainly to the
Grow hlore Food Campaign. Among the various organic manures,
the production and distribution of compost, both urban and rural,
are receiving considerable attention from the Government.
The Grow More Food Campaign has given impetus to better
irrigation facilities, increased use of fertilizers, improved varities
-of seeds, improved cultural practices and various methods of inten-
-.sive cultivation. Central Fertilzer Pool has been formed to make
^ammonium sulphate available to the cultivators throughout the
AGRICULTURE IN INDIA
25S
country at reduced and uniform prices. There is also the Standinir
Expert Committee on Seeds. Other important improvements under
G.M.F. campaigns are minor irrigation projects for sinking and con-
structing of tube -wells and introduction of Japanese methods of
paddy cultivation -which lays more emphasis on higher doses of ferti-
lizers and is recommended where adequate moisture supply is assured.
This method started as an experimental method in 1953 has been
organised on a more systematic method with definite targets. This
has resulted in increased food production.
After Grow More Food Campaign came the Integrated
Production Programme. It was formulated in 1950-61 for
the achievement of relative self-sufficiency in food, cotton^
jute and sugar. It has become a part of the First Five-Year
Plan which has, in tern, been integrated into the ten-year programme-
of land transfo-rmation. The five main -programmes are (a) con-
centration of the available funds and technical facilities in 48 million
acres with an assured water supply, (6) reclamation and cultivation
of 10 million acres of waste and fallow lands, (c) organisation of
Bhiimi Sena, (d) gosambardhan drive for producing 80,000 stud bulls
a year and for the eradication of rinder-pest in the country and (e)
regular observance of Vana Mahotsava -with the object of planting
300 million trees.
Crop Competitions — Another method for the increase of crop
production is the crop competitaon initiated by the Central
Government. Under this competition, the Central Government
award all-India cash prizes of 5,000 and a certificate of KriskH
Pandit to the farmers producing highest yield in respect of wheat,
gram, potato, paddy, jowar and bajra crops.
Land Reclamation — The land reclamation work for bring-
ing more land under cultivation is carried on by two agencies,
namely, Central Tractor Organisation and Tractor Organisation of
certain States, Central Tractor Organisation was founded in
1947 with about 200 tractors abandoned by U.S. Army.
Since its inception it _ has carried out some of the largest
reclamation operation in Asia. Thousands of acres of land in
Madiiya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Bharat and Bhopal
infested with a pernicious -weed known as bans, were cleared and
made ready for cultivation. A fleet of 240 new tractors were pur-
chased in 1951 out of a loan obtained by the Government from the
International Bank of Reconstruction and Development. The total
area reclaimed by the Centra! Tractor Organisation in eight years
of its existence exceeded eight lakh acres.
BHOODAN MOVEMENT — On a rough estimate there are about
4.5 million landless labourers in the country. Inspite of the abolition
of zamindaries, there -was no hops for these landless labourers. So
Acharya Vinoba Bhave has started Land Gift Movement. This is
an appeal to the lando-wners of India to donate land for the landless.
The noble efforts of Vinoba" Bhave have met with remarltable success.
The movement has also received direct supports of the State Govern-
ments and some political parties. Millions of acres of land
have been donated. For the proper utilization of this donated land.
■254
HINDUSTAN? I’EAE-BOOK
•tlie scope of fhe movement has been enlarged — ^snch as Koopdan
(gifts for sinking of vrells) and Sampattidan (gifts for procming
•agricnltnral implements and draught animals).
SOIL COlsSERVATIOK — A special provision of Rs. 2 crore has
been made in the Five-Year Plan for soil conservation. A desert
afforestation research station has been established at Jodhpnr to deal
■with the problems created by the insidious advances of the Rajasthan
•desert and a soil conservation branch has been opened at the Forest
“Research Institute, Dehra Dun. Contour-binding has been carried
•out on an extensive scale in Bombay, Uttar Pradesh, and Idadhya
Fradesh. The Central Conservation Board has started functioning
from 1955 to undertake soil analysis and combat soil erosion. This
Board has already started four regional centres. The Board has
also given subsidies and loans to the States for financing the soil
conservation schemes. Shelter belts vrere raised in Eajasthan by
planting trees along roads and railway lines as a desert control
measure.
5LARKETIKG — The Directorate of Marketing and Inspection
and marketting department in the States were created by the (Jovem-
ment of India in 1935 for improvement of marketing conditions of
agricultural, animal husbandry and allied products. It has conducted
nation-wide marketing surveys for various commodities. IVith the
help of subsidies from Indian Cotincil of Agricultural Research, the
State Governments have established similar organisations in their
own areas. The activities of the Directorate mainly consist of grad-
ing and standardisation of agricultural commodities, regulation
of markets and market practices and development of the fruit
preservation industry. Agricultural Produce (Grading and Market-
ing) Act was passed in 1937 for grading the agricultural produce.
But it is a permissive act, but enjoins compulsory quality control on
the basis of “AgamarJd’ specifications in respect of same commodities
exported from India, such as tobacco, sann hemp, wool and bristles.
Asamarh specification has been notified for 110 items so far. To
ensure fair price for a^ctiltural goods 414 regulated marJccts have
been established in India, where market charges are fixed, correct
weigh tment is ensured etc. The Directorate of marketting and Ins-
pection is also controlling quality of fruits and vegetable products
under Food Products Order, 194S. Under this order, factories with
annual production of fruits exceeding 200 lbs. have to obtain licence
^and the quality of fruits is required to be the standard laid down for
the purpose.
ZOOLOGIC-AL AND BOTANICAL SURVEYS— The Ministry of
Agriculture is responsible for Zoological Survep of IrAia which is
mainly concerned with care, preservation and maintenance of natural
-zoological collections in its custody. The Botanical Survey of India
. at Calcutta is also under the Ministry of Agriculture.
FOOD CROPS
Rice — the staple food of the majority of the people, is the lead-
ring crop of India and occupies about SO per cent of the total culti-
AGRICULTURE IN INDIA
255
■vated area. As sufficiently high temperature, high rainfall and fer-
tile alluvial plains are necessary for the growth of the crop, the
••southern and north-eastern parts of India are the main regions of
rice growing. In order of merit, Madras, Bihar, Bengal, U.P., M.P.,
Orissa, Assam and Bombay are the main rice growing areas. Rice
is special crop in the monsoon tracts. In eastern and southern India
it is the staple article of diet. The bulk of the rice is winter crop
i.e. sown in June-July and harvested in November-December. There
•are about 4,000 distinct varieties of rice in India. The average rice
yield in India is low, being only 723 lbs. of cleaned rice per acre
as compared to 2,350 lbs in Japan.
Wheat — which is the staple food of central and northern India is
■winter crop sown in India from October to December and
harvested from March to May and stands next only to rice in im-
portance. U.P. and Punjab form the principal wheat growing
area supplying about three quarters of the total outturn in the coun-
try. The two main species of wheat grown in India are the so-called
* bread’ wheat of Europe and the so-called ‘marconi’ wheat and it is
•estimated that about a third of the total acreage of wheat in India
is under improved varieties.
Barley — a subsidiary food to wheat-eaters is a rabi crop and is
grown mainly in the U.P. and Bihar. Compared to her pre-war
acreage and yield of about 6 million acres and about 1-9 million tons,
India has now about 7 million acres under barley producing about
2-4 million tons.
Millets — viz., jowar (called cholam in Madras) and bajra, the
two main varieties of millets ^own in India constitute the staple
•food of the agricultural population of the south. Both of them are
mainly grovm as kharif crops. While jowar is mainly grown in
Bombay, Hyderabad, M.P., Madras, U.P., bajra is grown mainly
in the Rajasthan, Bombay, the U.P., Madras and Punjab in order of
importance. It is estimated that jowar is gro'wn in about 20 million
acres yielding about 4 million tons while bajra is grown in about 16
million acres yielding more than 2 million tons. Another such food-
crop, gro'wn mainly in the south, is ragi which accounts for about 5
million acres producing about 1-4 mUlion tons annually. Another
food crop, uncommonly rich in its food value, is maize (commonly
kno'wn as makai or bhutta). Although gro-cm more or less all over
India, it is grown mainly in the U.P. and Bihar.
Gram and the Pulses — ^These constitute an important and balanc-
ing item of the popular diet in this country. Pulses form the pri-
mary source of protein for the vegetarian population of the country.
Some of them form a source of nutritious fodder, while others
make excellent green manure crops. Gram, the most commonly grown
pulse of India, is a rabi crop and accounts more or less for about 17
million acres and 3’6 million tons. U.P., Punjab, Bihar, M.P.,
and Hyderabad are in order of merit the most important gram pro-
ducing areas. Khesari, mung, masur, arhar, mattar and kalai are
the other pulses, also gro'wn extensively throughout the country.
Spices — of numerous varieties are gro'wn throughout India,
some mainly in the south. Of the Indian spices pepper is confined
256
HmDUSTAN -seae-book;
to the submountanic tracts of the Western Ghats and the total acreage
is estimated to he over 20,000 acres producing about 31,000 tons in
a normally good year. The major share of pepper is produced
by a large number of small holdings, chillies in West Bengal, Madras,
Ginger in Bombay, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Madias. Cardc-
■mom is an important spice crop on the west coast of India. It
grows wholly in the elevated and ever^een regions of the Western
Ghats and is grown on a .plantation basis in Kerala and
Malabar. Apart from being the principal exporter, India
is the only source for true cardamoms in the world market. Among
others betehnits are grown mainly in West Bengal and South
India, arccanuts being also grown in the same areas. India is how-
ever in short supply of many of the spices and has to import them.
Other important spices of India are tumieric, cashew-rMts, and
levwn grass.
Other Food Crops — Among other food crops mention must be
made of the overall shortage of fruits and vegetables which keeps
the first almost totally out of the reach of the general mass of people
and due to which the later is an insufficient unit of popular food con-
sidering the dietary habits of the people. The present annual supply
of fruits and vegetables amounts to only 1-5 and 1-3 ounces per adult
per day against the diet at 3 ounces, and 10 ounces respectively. To
make the position clear it may be mentioned that in potato for
example, India’s production is so very low that the per capita con-
sumption comes to about only 8 lbs. per annum as compared to 505
lbs. in Belgium.
PLAOT-4TI0N CROPS
Plantation Crops — The great plantation areas of India are
Assam in the north, the Nilgiri Hills and the West Coast area of
Travancore-Cochin in the South.
Tobacco — ^India stands third in the production of tobacco, the
other countries being U.S.A. and China. There are five zones of con-
centrated production in India — (a) North Bengal area, (6) North
Bihar area, growing both Nicothia Tobacum and Nicotina Eustica :
the former used for chewing as well as manufacture of cigarettes
and latter mostly used for hookah, (c) Gujarat area growing Nico-
tina Tobacum suited for bidi. hookah and snuff, (d) Nepani areas
of Belgaum, Kolhapur and Miraj growing Nicotina Tobacum used
for chewing and bi_di_; they are specially rnild and sweet, (c) Guntur
area growing Virginia type tobacco which is excellent for cigarette
manufacture. The chief Virginia variety cultivated in Indian soil is
Harrison special.
Poppy — which was an important narcotic crop before Inter-
national Agreement led to the restriction of opium exports, is at pre-
sent grown chiefly in UJP. and Central India and that mainlv as a
Government monopoly.
Cinchona — ^is mainly grown on Government plantations in the
Nilgiri Hills and Darjeeling. Considering the overall need of the
malaria-stricken country-side, production is still short and has to be
supplemented by imports.
AGRICULTURE IN INDIA
257
Tea — ^Indian Union is overwhelmingly the largest producer in the
world. The yearly production is nearly 600 million lbs. About 82
per cent of India’s tea comes from North India, mainly from Assam
and the Dooars (West Bengal) ; this tea is exported through the
port of Calcutta. Tea is, after jute and cotton, India's most im-
portant exchange earner.
Coffee — ^next to tea, coffee is considered the most important
plantation crops in India. The Indian production though small, has
consisted always of a large proportion of highest quality and is
grown in about 224,000 acres yielding about 18,000 tons. India pro-
duces less than one per cent of the world coffee output. There are
about 10,851 coffee plantations in India. With the exception of small
areas in Orissa, Assam and Madhya Pradesh, Indian coffee is grown
in the low hills of South India. Mysore is the most important
growing area followed by Madras, Coorg and Travancore-Cochin.
Rubber — ^The cultivation of raw rubber on a plantation scale was
undertaken in Travancore-Cochin, Malabar, Coorg and Mysore in
early years of the present century. The production of rubber in the
count^ at the present time is of the order of 16,000 to 17,000 tons.
Of the total number of rubber estates and holdings, 72-85 p.c. are
located in Travancore, 7.19 p.c. in Cochin, 16.55 p.c. in Madras
(mainly Malabar) and remaining 2.41 p.c. are in Coorg, the Anda-
mans and Assam.
Pepper — ^India is suppling two-thirds of the estimated world
demand. She is now producing, in and below the Western Ghats be-
tween Karwar and Cape Comorin 31,000 tons of pepper grown over
195,000 acres.
Cardamom — In the recent years there has been a remarkable
expansion in the cardamom growing industry. It is estimated that
the present acreage amounts to over 120,000, about 50 per cent of
which is situated in the Cardamom Hills in Travancore-Cochin and
the remainder in the States of Coorg and Mysore and in the districts
of Madura, Tinnevelly, Malabar and Coimbatore. The total produc-
tion is estimated at about 1,350 tons.
Ooves — are chiefly grown in the foot-hills of the Western Ghats
in the State of Madras. The production is insufficient to meet
demand.
FIBRES
Cotton — ^is the chief commercial crop of India. Bombay, Punjab,
hladhya, Pradesh, Madras, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Saurashtra, are the important cotton producing tracts of
the country.
Jute — A monopoly of undivided India, it is at present
grown in about 766,000 acres yielding about 2 million bales against
a total requirement of about 6 mUlion bales. Endeavour is being
made therefore to extend its cultivation. Reclamation of fallow
land, diversion of arcs paddy land, double cropping of aman paddy
land are some of the measures adopted to secure an increase in jute
production and the result has been the progressive increase of jute
17
258
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
production in India. The heat and humidity and heavy downpour of
rain — unpleasant features of the climate of Bengal are ideal for the
gro'irth of jute. The outturn of dry fibre of jute generally varies 8
to 25 mds. with an average of 11 mds. per acre, depending upon soil
fertility and other factor.
Hemp — ^is another fibre grown in India chiefly in the M.P., the
U.P., Bombay and West Bengal. Small as the production is, it is
used largely for the production of cordage and canvas.
Silk — ^Two-thirds of the total output of this fibre comes from
Mysore. Of the other varieties of silk, “mulbery” silk is grown in
the districts of Murshidabad, Malda and Birbhum of West Bengal,
Debra Dun and Parbatgarh of the U.P., Gurudaspur of Punjab
and in Kashmir, where it is a state monopoly ; ‘tasar’ silk in the
M.P., and the Chotanagpur division of Bihar ; ‘eri’ silk in the Jalpai-
guri district of West Bengal and in Assam ; and ‘Mztga’ silk in
Assam and Manipur.
OTHER CASH CROPS
Sugarcane — In the sugar map of the world, India occupies a
leading place producing about 4i million tons even exceeding that of
Cuba. Sugarcane growing is an important element in the agricultural
economy, specially in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The average yield
of cane per acre is now around 14 tons as compared with 56 tons in
Java and 62 tons in Hawaii.
Indian Central Sugarcane Committee is a Central Organisation
for co-ordinating sugarcane research and development work.
Lac — ^is a resinous material secreted by an insect which lives
as a parasite on certain kinds of tropical tree. It can be marketed
roughly in its natural form as sticklac or refined into seedlac or fur-
ther refined into shellac or buttonlac. Lac is collected over almost
all India, the most important producing states being Bihar and
Madhya Pradesh.
Myrobalans — ^is a small fruit produced on trees in mixed decidu-
ous forests normally below 3,000 feet above sea level, but occasionally
found up to 5,000 feet. When pulped it produces a substance used
in the tanning industry. It is also used as a coimtry medicine.
The fruit is collected in state forests in Madhya Pradesh, Madras,
Bombay, Bihar and Orissa and also derived from private forests.
Lemongrass Oil — Oil of lemongrass is an essential oil, a pro-
duct distilled from the leaves of a special species of grass botanically
known as cymbogon flexuosus. Lemongrass of the best variety which
yields a superior oil is used for extracting aromatic chemicals, employ-
ed in perfumery, soap, cosmatics and pharmaceutical preparations.
The Travancore-Cochin Government Lemongrass Research Station has
been established at Odakali near Perumbavoor, 14 miles from Ema-
kulam on August 27, 1955. Lemongrass is a dollar-saving product.
Nearly 75 per cent of the world’s supply of lemongrass oil is pro-
duced in the State of Travancore-Cochin where the area under culti-
vation is estimated at 40,000 acres.
Cashew Nuts — are grown mostly in Madras, Bombay, Orissa,
AGEICULTUKE IN INDIA
259
Bengal and Kerala. Madras State is by far the most
important State as far as cashew nut production is concerned.
India ranks as the most important producer of cashew nut in the
world and holds almost a monopoly, accounting for more than 95
per cent of the international trade in cashew nut kernels.
OILSEEDS
Oilseeds — India is one of the largest producers of oilseeds and
holds a prominent position in the world trade of oilseeds being one
of the principal exporting countries. Oilseeds in India are grown in
an area of about 23 million acres representing 8 p.c. of the net culti-
vated area. Oilseed crops are those, from the seeds of which oil,
either edible or non-edible is extracted. The crops may either be
perennial as coconut, neem, mahua or annual like groundnut, gin-
gelly etc. Groundnut, gingelly, mustard, copra, castor and kusum are
the most important edible oilseeds. The importance of oilseeds in the
Indian economy is indicated by the fact that more than 25 million
acres are devoted to their production, equivalent to about 10 per cent
of the net area sown with crops in the whole of India. Indian Cen-
tral Oilseeds Committee Act which was passed in 1946 was intended
to promote the improvement and development in the cultivation and
marketing of oilseeds and oilseeds products and in accordance with
this Act the Indian Central Oilseeds Committee, was consti-
tuted in May, 1947. This Committee is responsible for the
development of all oilseeds excepting coconut for which a separate
Committee, viz., Indian Central Coconut Committee at Emakulam
(Cochin) has been constituted under the Indian Central Coconut
Committee Act, 1944.
Linseed — a rabi crop, producing a very important industrial oil,
is at present gro^vn in about 3-3 million acres yielding more than
350,000 tons annually. Cultivation of linseed is widespread through-
out India, main centres being Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,
Andhra, Bihar, Madhya Bharat, Rajasthan.
Castor — another non-edible oilseed, is a virtual monopoly
of India, the average acreage and yield in recent years being 1'4
million acres and about 130,000 tons. It is grown almost throughout
the length and breadth of India and Hyderabad is the most impor-
tant producer with an area of 879,000 acres. About 70 per cent
of the crop is available for export either as seed or as oil. India
comes next to Brazil only in world production and trade of castor
seed.
Groundnut — ^India has the largest area under groundnuts in the
world. The groundnut cultivation has become a major agri-
cultural operation in India and the crop is now estimated to
occupy nearly 42 p.c. of the area under all oilseeds and 4.4 p.c. of
the total area sown under all main food crops in the Indian Union.
Prom a mere 0-5 million acres at the beginning of the century, the
groundnuts now account for nearly 11 m. acres with an annual yield
of 3i million tons of nuts in shells and 4'10 m. tons of kernels.
Nearly 80 p.c. of the groundnut area is concentrated in Madras,
Andhra, Bombay, and the prominent varieties grown are the Coro-
260
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
mandel and the Peanuts. Bold nuts grown in Saurashtra with a
lower oil content are specially valued for eating.
The oil is used for culinary purposes. The advent of vanaspati
has set up a great demand and vanaspati industry is the single
largest consumer of groundnut oil.
Rape and Mustard — ^two other very important edible oOseeds
are, imlike groundnut, rabi crops accounting for about 4-3 million
acres and a little less than 800,000 tons in normal years. Uttar
Pradesh grows well over half the rape and mustard in India.^ Other
important producing areas are Bihar, Punjab, Assam and Rajasthan.
Sesamum — or gingelly or til also an edible oilseed, is a kharif
crop grown in a little less than 4 million acres_ with an
yield of more than 340,000 tons in normal years. _ The chief growers
of sesamum are U.P., and Madras foDowed by Rajasthan, Hyderabad
and Madhya Bharat.
Coconut — ^is an important oil- 3 ?ielding tropical fruit. It pro-
vides many useful products to mankind. The kernel of the ripe
nut in its raw state finds wide use in culinary preparations or is
dried and converted into copra and crushed for oil. Coconut oil is
greatly in demand for edible purposes as well as for the manufac-
ture of soaps and toUet preparations. The tender nut affords a
refreshing drink, while the unopened spathe on tapping yields a
sweet-juice or neera. Its leaf and timber are extensively used for
constructing houses. In India it grows luxuriantly in the coastal
and deltaic tracts and also in the interior of Mysore. India’s share
in the world acreage and production comes to 1*5 million acres and
3,400 million nuts respectively. The bulk of this produce comes
from the plantations located in the strip of land lying on the west
coast of India between the Arabian Sea and the Western Ghats
extending from the Konkan in the north to Cape Comorin in the
south and falling vithin the territories of North Kanara of Bombay
State, South Kanara and Malabar districts of Madras and Travan-
core-Cochin. The districts of Tanjore, Godavari and Vizag in
Madras, Andhra and Mysore, Orissa and Bengal also possess appre-
ciable areas under the crop. To rehabilitate the industry and pro-
mote research a statutory body, the Indian Central Coconut
Committee representing various interests was constituted by an
Act of 1944.
Cotton-seed — also an edible oilseed, is naturally a by-product of
cotton cultivation and is extensively grown in India, the average
annual production being above 2 million tons.
CEREALS
Rice
Wheat
Jowar
Bajra
PRODUCTION OP FOOD GRAINS
(Reporting and non-reporting areas)
(Thousands of Tons)
1951-52
20,964
6,085
5.981
2,309
1952-53
22,537
7,382
7,243
3,142
1953-54
27,769
7,890
7,954
4,475
1954-55
24,209
8,539
9,092
3,555
AGRICULTURE IN INDIA 261
Maize
2,043
2,825
2,991
2,944
Ragi
1,291
1,316
1,846
1,778
Barley
2,330
2,882
2,905
2,786
Small millets
1,885
1,895
2,438
2,424
TOTAL CEREALS
42,888
49,222
58,268
55,327
PULSES
Gram
. 3,334
4,142
4,756
5,125
Other pulses
, 4,953
4,902
5,694
5,349
TOTAL PULSES
8,287
9,044
10,450
10,474
GRAND TOTAL
(Cereals and
Pulses)
. 51,175
(Report
58,266
68,718
65,801
on Currency & Finance,
1955-56).
PRODUCTION OF AGRICLUTURAL COMMODITIES OTHER
THAN FOOD GRAINS
(000 omitted)
Unit
1951-52
1952-53
1953-54
1954-55
1. Sugar (raw)
(tons)
6,066
5,019
4,423
5,546
2. Oil seeds
( » )
4,949
4,659
5,286
5,877
(a) Groundnut
( )
3,142
2,883
3,391
3,823
(b) Rape & Mustard ( „ )
928
844
858
962
(c) Sesamum
( „ )
445
464
554
592
(d) Linseed
( ,, )
328
366
379
388
(e) Castorseed
( )
106
102
103
112
3, Cotton (lint) (392 bls.each)
3,133
3,194
3,944
4,227
4. Jute (400 Ibs.each)
4,678
4,592
3,091
2,928
6. Mosta
( )
, ,
8,682
650
1,106
6. Silk (raw)
( lbs. )
2,712
2,558
2,462
3,208
7. Tea
( bis. )
6,41,079
6,75,270
5,88,733
, ,
8, Coffee
( tons )
24
21
25
, ,
9. Rubber
( tons )
14
16
20
19
10. Tobacco
( .. )
206
241
268
248
11. Lac
( mds. )
1,297
1,153
654
1,023
(Bcport on Currency & Finance, 1955-56).
INDEX NUMBERS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION
(Base ; Agricultural year 1949-50=100)
Commodities Group Weight 1950-51 1951-52 1952-53 1953-54 1954-55
Total sereals . - 58.3 90.3 91.2 101.4 119.3 112.1
Total pulses .. 8.6 91.7 90.3 98.8 112.1 113.0
Total food grains . . 66.9 90.5 91.1 101.1 118.4 112.2
Total oilseeds .. 9.9 98.5 97.4 91.9 106.7 115.1
Total fibres .. 4.5 108.6 128.3 128.4 133.5 146.4
Total plantation crops 3.6 104.6 . 109.4 115.7 102.6 106.4
Total miscellaneous . . 15.1 110.3 114.0 101.5 97.1 112.7
Total Non-food grains 33.1 105.9 110.5 103.8 105.5 117.3
All Commodifies . . 100.0 95.6 97.5 102.0 114.1 113.9
(Report on Currency & Finance, 1955-56).
FISHERY IN INDIA
India, with a coast line of 3,500 miles, into which munerons large,
perennial rivers discharge their silt-laden waters, innumerable gulfs,
creeks, bays and oceanic islands, has a fishable area of about 110,000
square miles. Similarly, the extensive backwaters, estuaries,
lagoons and swamps, numerous rivers, streams and channels and a
very large number of perennial and semi-perennial lakes, heels, reser-
voirs, tanks, ponds and other stretches of water, a large_ proportion
of which is culturable, are a rich potential of inland fisheries. So far
as sea area is concerned, only a small portion is at present worked.
This, it is stated, is because the methods used by Indian fishermen
are not modem, most of them using country boats like catamarans
and small nets which are not adequate for fishing in deep seas. The
chief sources of supply of fish are the coastal margins of the sea, river
estuaries and backwaters for marine and estuarine fish and rivers,
canals, tanks, inundated tracts etc. for the fresh water fish.
INLAND FISHERIES — Constitute fresh fish from rivers, canals,
tanks, ponds, irrigation channels, inundated tracts etc. They are the
mainstay of inland fisheries of India. The extensive areas of Ganges
system, Brahmaputra in Assam, Mahanadi in Orissa, Narmada,
Tapti, Godavari, Kistna and Cavery in the Lladhya Bharat and South
India are the main area for inland fisheries. In this class of fish,
West Bengal leads the rest of India. The three States of West
Bengal, Bihar and Assam account for 72 per cent of the total fresh
water fish in India.
SEA FISHING — Sea fishing is mainly carried on in small craft
having a displacement of under five tons, in coastal waters from
five to seven miles from the shore and within a depth of 10 fathoms.
With the exception of a few oflT-shore fishing boats operating in
certain localities, very few fishermen make vojmges which would
entail staying in the open sea longer than 12 hours at a time.
There is, at present, practically no night fishing. This is largely
because the equipment Tised for sea fishing consists mostly boats,
canoes, cntamarans and of small nets and tackles which are not of a
type which can stand the regorous and requirements of off-shore or
deep-sea fishing. These fishing people, poor as they are, have acute
problem of procuring nets, timber for boats, sailing cloth, fish hooks
and coal tar etc. So the mechanization of fishing operation has
become an absolute necessity.
At present sea fishing is carried on within 10 fathoms in the sea.
The sea fisheries are confined to the coastal waters from the shore
of Gujarat, Canara, Malabar coast. Gulf of Manar, Madras coast and
Coromondal coast. The principal sea fish around the coasts of India
are herrings, mackerel, prawns, jew fish, cat fish, mullets, pomfrets,
and Indian salmon, llackerel accounts for over one third of the
total catch. Herrings account for over 15 p.c. of the total catch.
Prawns account for 9 p.c. of the total catch.
AGRICULTURE IN INDIA
263
ESTURINE AND BACKWATER FISHING— Chilka lake in
Orissa, backwaters in Madras, Cochin and Travancore, deltaic areas
of Sundarbans and Mahanadi are the principal sources of esturine
and backwater fish. The esturies of Mahanadi and the Ganges
stretching from Puri to Hooghly are extensive fishing grounds con-
taining hilsa, pomfrets, prawns, catla, cat fish, rohu etc.
REFRIGERATION — Another important item for the improvement
for fish production in India is the refrigeration without which this
problem can not be solved. At present, though large quantities of fish
are being caught, but for the want of refrigeration facilities and
transport, only a small portion of the catch can be used in a fresh
condition. So for the better supply of fishes, two things are absolu-
tely necessary — (1) quick transport of fresh fish from large assembly
centres to some of the towns in fast motor vans, (2) provision of
refrigerated rail transport. For the quick freezing and cold storage,
erection of cold storage plants are the ideal solution for the proper
preservation of fish and also erection of as many ice factories as
possible, so that adequate quantities of ice may be available at all
important fishing and consuming centres.
FISHING INDUSTRY — (1) There is practically no fish-canning
industry in India but fish curing is being carried on in various ways.
In India fish is preserved by desiccation with or without salt and byi
the use of antiseptic preservatives, such as brine, vinegar etc. The
main process is the desiccation by drying fish in the sun. It is also
done by salt. Canning is pi’acticed on a limited scale in Madras and
Bombay, The cured fish has developed lucrative export trade with
Ceylon and other countries. Fish curing yards have been established
along the coasts of India. In order to develop fish industry in India
on extensive scale refrigeration system has become absolutely neces-
sary. Cold storage facilities are being developed in every part.
VARIETIES OF FISHES — more than 1,800 distinct species of
fish are known to exist in the seas around the country and the inland
waters, but the varieties that are caught in appreciable quantities are
limited in number. Pisciculture experts classify the commercially
important varieties of sea fish into 15 groups and freshwater fish into
eight.
The sea fish groups include elasmobranchs, eels, cat fishes, silver-
bar fish, herrings and anchovies, Bombay duck, mackerels and per-
ches, silver-bellies, pomfrets, flat fishes, mullets, Indian salmon,
which is stated to be not a true salmon, jew fish, crustaceans and
minor shell-fishes.
Fresh water fishes are grouped under cat-fishes, mullets, ca^s,
prawns, murrels, feather backs, eels, herrings and anchovies.
Though several kinds of edible fish are obtained from fresh water
sources, only a fraction of the inland water area is devoted to planned
pisciculture. , , . , ,
Regarding fresh water fishes, carps form the most highly estee-
med variety, constituting about 34 per cent such as, Rohu, Catla,
Mrigal and Calbans which are well-known throughout India. Other
important varieties are cat fish, wallago, bagarious, clarius, silundia
264
HTNWSTAX YEAE-BOOK
and macrones belonging to this class. Trout has been introduced into
the hill streams in Kashmir, Kumaon and Nilgiri Hills.
Eegarding river fishes, the foUordng may he specially mention-
ed — masheer available in the upper reaches of most rivers in_ India.
Chilwa is a flat-sided, thin-bodied fish with his stomach running an
edge. It occurs freely both in the north as well as in south Indian
rivers. Murrel varies from 2 to 3 ft. in length. Batchwa is small
but excellent for eating. Barils have 14 species and they are widely
distributed throughout India- Olive carp is available in Madras and
is also found in the fresh waters all along the coast of India from
Kutch to Bengal. Mtdlep has no scales.
Regarding tank fishing we have rohu which is met within most
large-sized tanks.
FISH PRODUCTS — Besides articles of food, fish yields several
byproducts, such as fish-oil, fish-meal, fish-manure, fish-mates and
shark-fins. The most important is fish oil, such as, sardine oil and
shark-liver oil which are now produced on commercial basis in India.
The oil is used for the manufacture of paints, soft-soaps, for soften-
ing hides, for temparing steel, batching jute and after hydrogenation
for the preparation of edible fats. Fish liver oil produces vitamins A
and B indispensable for wasting diseases. It is being manufactured
by the Governments of Bombay, Madras and Itevancore, The
Government shark-liver oil factory is situated at Koshikode, Madras
wliich supplies shark-liver oil for use in hospitals and for sale to
the public. _ Indian fishes such as salmons, jew fishes, cat-febes are
yielding ‘Jsin-glass,’ a valuable article for the clarification of wines.
Bombay, east coast of Madras and Snnderbans in Bengal are the
centres of trade of this commodity. Fish-scraps are converted into
fish-meal as additional protein food for poultry and livestock. Fish
refuse is being dried as fish-manure.
Fish-curing is also an important supplementary trade. The
chief methods of curing fish in India are sun-drying and salt curing,
either by dry or wet process.
RATE OF CONSUSIPTION — The average per capita annual con-
snmpHon of fish in India is estimated at 3.98 lbs. Travaneore has
the highest consumption of 21 lbs. per capita a year, which comes to
about one ounce per capita a day. Other States which consume con-
siderable quantities of fish are West Bengal 13 lbs. per capita a year,
Madras 12 lbs., Bombay seven lbs., Assam six lbs., and Orissa five lbs.
Consumption is the lowest in the Punjab with O.OS lbs.
In the FAO surveys India has been included in the category of
low fish-consuming countries whose average per capita consumption
falls below five kfiograms. India’s neighbour, Burma is among the
fish-consuming countries with an average of 20 kilograms per capita-
Nutrition experts estimate that for a balanced diet 1.3 ounces
per day is required per adult, i.e., 20 lbs. per capita per annum.
Approximately 92 per cent of the total production in India is used
for edible purposes and eight per cent for the manufacture of indus-
trial and other products.
FISHERY IN INDIA
265
SECOND FIVE-YEAR PLAN — ^The main programmes of the 2nd
Five-Year Plan are as follows —
(1) Plans to catch the large schools of tuna for canning whose
production is estimated to be around 250,000 metric tons a year
which at present spawn and swim in the deep waters of the Bay of
Bengal.
(2) A dozen of additional powerful mechanised fishing vessels
will augment the Central Governments present meagre fieet of
four mechanised deep-sea fishing vessels during 2nd Five-Year Plan.
(3) Establishment of 'fishing harbours’ in three or four places
on the coast line v/here fishing vessels can berth and land their catch.
(4) Cold storage for keeping the catch and provision of
refrigerated transport for carrying it to cities.
(5) Export of frozen prawns to U.S. where there is a big
market.
(6) Enlargement of the number of co-operative societies for
fishermen.
(7) Increasing the country’s wealth of ‘carp’ has a prominent
place in the development of inland fisheries.
(8) Controlled culture of ‘tilapia,’ much-publicised fast-growing
fish, now popular in many eastern countries. For the present experi-
mental work on this fish in three research stations.
(9) Establishment of number of extension centres where fisher-
men will receive training in handling small power boats.
(10) Establishment of new technological stations for bringing
home the results of research to fishermen and trade.
RESEARCH — Tliere is Fisheries Research Committee of the
Union Ministry of Food and Agriculture. Considerable research
on fisheries and exploratory fishing have been done by the Central
Inland Fisheries Research Station in Calcutta, the Central Marine
Research Station at Mandapam and the Central Deep-Sea Fishing
Station in Bombay.
The Calcutta Station supplies fish seed and spawns not only to
States, but also to foreign countries like Israel and Malaya. The
Calcutta Station has to its credit valuable "work in developing suit-
able fish-farming practices. A pilot deep-sea fishing station was
established in 1948 to undertake exploratory fishing with the object
of charting fishing grounds, determining fishing seasons and fishing
intensities, assessing the suitability of different kinds of fishing
craft and gear under Indian conditions and training of Indian per-
sonnel in powered fishing methods.
FOREIGN AID — ^Fairly generous assistance has been received
from foreign assistance programmes. F.A.O. has been providing tech-
nical assistance for the development of Indian fisheries. The Govern-
ment of U.S.A. under their Technical Co-operation Programme have
also given substantial assistance by providing equipment and techni-
cal personnel. Under the Indo-Norwegian Project Co-operation Pro-
gramme, a Fisheries Community Development Project has been esta-
blished in Kerala and is functioning successfully in improving the
economics, health and sanitary conditions of the fishermen community
within the Project area by introducing motorised fishing, providing
266
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
ice and marketing facilities and also by improving supplies of drink-
ing water and facilities for medical relief.
With this foreign assistance and with their own Tesources,
the maritime States have been able to initiate programmes to help
fishermen to equip their boats with engines to enable them to go fur-
ther into the sea. The use of better fishing nets has also been
demonstrated to impress on the fishermen the need to replace their
old small nets.
Progress in Travancore Cochin — ^The development of fishery in
Kerala has been possible due to Norwegian Fisheries DeveJ
lopment Project located in Guilon district. Norv/egian Aid Scheme
has been started under U. N. Organisation with the Governments of
Norway and India as the parties to an agi-eement in 1953. The
Norwegian contribution to the project for the year 1956-57 was
Rs. 41 lakhs. The Norwegian Fisheries Development Project was
really a Community Project in action being worked by Norwegians.
jVQUARIA and museums — ^T here are a small number of fish
aquaria in India. The main aquariams are Taraporevala Aqnariiim,
Blarine Drive, Bombay. Attached to this aquarium is the Marine
Biological Research Station where facilities are available to research
students for M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees. A fish farm is being esta-
blished at Sasson Dock, Bombay for conducting research on problems
relating to ancillary industries like shark liver oil, gelatine, glue,
fish meal etc. These are a museum and an aquarium in JIadras,
which preserves specimens of all important marine and fresh water
fishes, many kinds of sharks, aquatic cureos etc. There is a small
experimental aquarium of the Orissa Fisheries Department at Cuttack.
A small museum exists in the Central Fisheries Research Labora-
tories, Lucknow where an aquarium room in the Laboratory has been
started, with all fish species of U.P.
PEARL OYSTERS — One of the important developments in the
fish industry is the revival of pearl fishing by the Madras (^vernment.
Tuticorin in Madras is the centre of pearl industry in India.
There are two types of oysters — (1) window-pane oyster shell used
for decorative purposes and (2) real pearl oyster. The window-pane
oysters are found in open sea off Coromondal coast. Madras coast and
Cochin coast. The waters of the gulf between India and Ceylon and
of the Arabian sea near the edge of the Kathiawar peninsula, as well
as of the Gulf of Cutch are rich in oyster beds.
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
IMPORTANCE OF CATTLE IN INDIA— India possesses over
150 million heads of cattle, more than one fourth of the •world’s total
cattle population. In addition, she has 43 million buffaloes besides
86 million sheep and goats and 3 million other animals like horses,
mules and donkeys. India is mainly an agricultural country and
more than 70 per cent of her population are tillers of the soil and
from time immemorial, man and cow in India have became by long
association inseperable entities. Cattle supply the necessary motive
and tractive power so essential for all our agricultural operations
and invigorate the fields by supplying manure. It is estimated that
the annual direct contribution from our livestock by labour alone
is over 1,000 crores of rupees and by manure another 1,000 crores.
Indian cattle serve two main purposes ; one is the milk produc-
tion and other is the supply of bullock power for agricultural opera-
tion like ploughing, carting, and drawing of water for irrigation.
But Indian cattle is of inferior quality because there is indiscrimi-
nate breeding and a majority of them do not possess characteristics
of any breed. The most important problem of animal husbandry
in India is the breeding improvement of cattle. The old practice of
distributing stud bulls have been found to be inadequate, because
the supply of farm bulls is very small and the continuity of such
supplies cannot be always steady. Even the very little improve-
ment secured through pedigree animals is offset by the existence of
a large number of unapproved bulls in the area. So the main points
are (1) the passing of Livestock Improvement Acts which will secure
the removal of scrub bulls by castration and other measures. Most
States in India have nov/ passed such Acts. (2) The second notable
instrument for the improvement of the breeding of animals is the
introduction in 1946 of the pilot scheme for artificial insemination
which has proved its value and has became the first item in the
programme of cattle improvement, (3) Introduction of herd book
system in which all the animals true to type are recorded. This will
help the systematic recording of milk production and definitions
of breed characteristics of the important type on more scientific
lines.
LIVESTOCK & THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION— Organisation
of agriculture and animal husbandry finds a place in the Constitution
of India. For in Article 48 included in the "Directive Principles of
State Policy” it is directed that State shall endeavour to organise
agriculture and animal husbandry on modern and scientific lines and
shall, in particular, take steps for presem’ing and improving breeds,
and prohibiting the slaughter of cows and calves and other milch and
draught cattle.
KEY VILLAGE PLAN & OTHER PROJECTS— The most im-
portant development of all is the project for the simultaneous attack
268
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
on the problems of poor breeding, defective and inadequate feeding, in-
cidence of disease etc., 'which is called All India Key VillcCge Scheme
initiated in 1950-51. This scheme provides for the linking up of four
or five villages having a population of 2,000 cows of breedable
age to a central key village where breeding bulls are kept and semen
is distributed for servicing in the outlying 'villages by artificial
insemination. During the First Five-Year Plan 600 key villages
and 150 artificial insemination centres were established and their
work was very impressive and popular. During the Second Plan,
these targets will lae doubled. These key villages 'will produce 3,00d
improved bulls, 36,000 improved bullocks and 10,000 cows. Gosadhan
scheme has also been started for the segregation of old and unpro-
ductive stock. The Central Council of Gosamvardhan has been set
up by the Central Government to deal ■with the various aspects of
cattle development.
Gosamvardhan Day is being observed on the ad'vice of the Central
Council of Gosamvardhana in order to create the necessary enthu-
siasm in the general public for cattle improvement. A centre for
training of gaushala workers at Kamal and the establishment of a
pilot project for development of poul'try at Izatnagar are among the
new ventures undertaken in 1955.
Central Stud Farm — ^All-India Central Stud Farm has been
started in Bangalore in 1955 by the Government of India as a part
of an intensive scheme for the improvement and development of
cattle in the country. The farm consists of pedigree breeds from
all parts of India as well as foreign breeds. The pedi^ee breeds
of this All-India Central Farm 'will consist of the Sindhi, Tharpar,
Gir, Murrah, Ongole and Kangayam types and the Jersy from
America. The semen of these pedigree breeds will be available to
the pilot unit centres which 'will be run on the model of the key
■village scheme with a view to intensifying live-stock development
by increasing the dairy qualities of the indigenous stock grading them
up ■with foreign breeds.
DIVISION OF LIVESTOCK — ^Livestock is generally dmded into
three classes, namely — (a) Bovine, comprising oxen and buffaloes ;
(6) Omne, comprising sheep and goats ; and (c) others, comprising
horses, ponies, mules, donkeys, camels, and pigs.
SPECIES OF CATTLE — ^There are at present forty recognised
breeds of cattle and buffaloes in our. country. In India certain breeds
of cattle are known for their high milk productions, while others
for their high class powers. A third category of animals combine
in themselves a moderate degree of efficiency for production of both
milk and work. Some of the best varieties are mentioned here —
(1) Some of the best Cows in India are Sahhval in Punjab and
Gir in Saurashtra. Red Sindhi whose habitat is in Sind (Pakistan)
has been developed in Coorg and at Government farms of Kamal,
Hosur and Koila. It is a milch breed and cows are one of the ^st
and economical producers of milk.
(2) The important breeds of bullocks are Hissar and Hansi
found in Punjab and Nellorc in Madras. Amrit Mahal is one of the
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
269
best draught breeds found chiefly in Mysore State. Bullocks of this
breed are active and fast trotters. Ongole bullocks are powerful and
suitable for any work. Home of this breed is Nellore and Guntur dis-
tricts of Madras. Other breeds are Kanrej in Gujarat, Kangayam in
Madras, Kherigarh in Uttar Pradesh, Dungi and Nitnar in Bombay
and Harina in Punjab. The finest duel purpose animals, i.e., best
for draught as well as milk purposes are Kanrej and Gir. The best
breeds of buffaloes are Murrah in Punjab, Jafferbadi in Saurashtra
and Mehasana, Surati and Pandharpuri in Bombay. These nine
breeds of cattle from all parts of India are of first rate importance. —
Sindhi — ^This breed hails from Sind, but several pedigree herds
of it have been established in India, particularly in Kathiawar on the
West Coast. It is a distinctive dairy animal.
Sahiwal — ^Though originally belonged to central undivided
Punjab, it is available in Kamal, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
Harina — ^The home of the breed is the area covered by the dis-
tricts of Rohtak, Hissar, Gurgaon, part of Kamal and the Delhi State.
This breed is also produced in more or less pure form in Jind, Nabha,
Patiala, Jaipur, Jodhpur, Loharu, Alwar, Bharatpur and in East
Uttar Pradesh.
Murah — ^The cows of this breed is good milker and the bullocks
are excellent for draught. It is available in Southern Punjab, Delhi
and northern Uttar Pradesh.
Gir — ^The home of this breed is Kathiawar. Pure specimen of
this breed is available in Junagadh.
Kankrej — The home of this breed is the country to the south-
east of the Rann of Kutch, extending from the south-west comer of
the Tharparkar district in Sind to Dholka in Ahmedabad district,
also along the Banas and Saraswati rivers. It is one of the heaviest
of Indian cattle.
Tharparkar — Coming originally from the arid semi-desert tracts
of south-east Sind, this breed is mostly bred in India today in the
north-east portion of Bombay State as well as Marwar.
Kangayam — ^The name of this breed is derived from the Kanga-
yam division of Coimbatore district where it has been in existence
for a long time.
Ongole — The home of this breed is Ongole tract of the Madras
Presidency comprising Ongole, Guntur, Narasaraopet, parts of
Bapatla etc.
It is a significant fact that good cattle are generally found in
dry areas and inferior cattle in areas of heavy rainfall. The rainfall
map of India more or less coincides with her cattle map.
Thus Punjab, Rajasthan, Saurashtra, Mysore and drier parts of
Bombay and Madras are homes of some of the best cattle in India,
while non-descripts are found in areas of heavy rainfall, like Assam,
Bengal, Orissa and Malabar Coast.
Sheep — Another cattle wealth of India is sheep and goat. Their
distribution is widely divergent mainly dependent upon the
climatic conditions — the number being smaller in heavy rainfall
areas and greater in light rainfall areas. There are in the country
about 38 million sheep some of which are mutton variety and soma
270
HINDUSTAN TEAK-BOOK
■of the woolly type. The annual clip of wool is about 38 milhon lbs
valued about Ks. 9 crores. The wool which is one of the main pro-
ducts of the sheep breeding industry, holds eighth position amongst
the agricultural commodities in the country’s export trade and earns
54 million rupees in foreign exchange. The sheep do not only provide
wool, but also mutton, manure, pelts, hair, nnlk, butter and serve as
pack animals to carry essential food grains from their owners, across
the precipitous hiHs where other systems of transport would per-
haps fail.
There are about 14 breeds of sheep in India, which can be divided
into two distinct types, namely, woolly and hairy. The wooUy tjyes
produce wool fibres of fine or coarse quality, while the other just
produce hair and are reared for manurial purposes and to provide
mutton.
The carpet wool produced in India is classified in the world
markets as East Indian type of wool and is sold under well-known
names of Joria and Vinanere. The Bikaneri breed haUing from the
desert of Bikaner is the hardiest breed known in India._ This breed
is becoming a cosmopolitan breed of India and is being introduced in
different States. The fact that India is one of the main producem
of carpet wool, need not leave an erroneous impression that In^a
produces only this wool. This country also produces large qualities
of fine wool, specially in the hills of the Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and
Kashmir. But this does not meet the requirements of our country,
with the result, that we have to import about 9 million lbs. of fine
wool every year. There are several types of hill-sheep along the
Himalayan ranges which produces fine wool, such as Gurez, Kamah,
Bhadaswah, and Rampur Busher. The story of Indian hill-sheep
will remain incomplete without the mention of Pasbmina goat com-
ing from Ladakh, Kashmir. This goat produces the finest wool_ in
the world, knowui as Pasham. We have also Tibetan sheep coming
to Indian Hills in summer. Marino sheep are being introduced in
our hill areas to improve the local sheep so as to get more and fine
wool from them.
The wool-producing States are Punjab, U.P., Kajasthan. The
average production of wool per sheep in Inia is 1.9 lb.
There is an Wool Analysis Laboratory in Poona for the
research of wool fibre and various other improvements. The annual
production of wool of Indian sheep is very poor when compared to
those of other countries. The wool produced in India is also of
much inferior quality. .As an exception, the Ifrshmir goats are
famous for fineness of their wool. There are some good sheep in
parts of India like the Bikaner rams which are woolly types.
Goat is also the principal source of meat supply in the country.
The important varieties of goat are — Jamnapuri type of the Deccan
Plateau, the Surti of West India and the black and white bearded
variety of Bengal, Ganjam, and Telingani varieties.
India’s goats number about 58 millions. Goats are prized for
their meat and milk. Goat contributes only 3 p.c. of the total milk
supply of India.
India’s pigs belong to two principal species namely, Indian wild
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
271
boar found throughout India and pig^y hog in the forests at the
base of the Himalayas in Nepal, Sikkim and Bhutan. Pigs are use-
ful for bristles, lard, meat (pork, ham, bacon) and skin.
HorscB are mainly used for transport. The Kathiawar breed of
horses known as kathi is famous for its great powers and endurance.
The Marhatta pony, the little Gujarat and Dimthadi of the Deccan
arc also famous. The ponies of Manipur are regarded as the best
in India. Bhutia pony is also famous for powers of endurance and
v/eight-carrying capacity.
MILK PRODUCTION — Ill-bred, ill-fed and ill-maintained as our
cattle are today, the return from them is less than the amount expect-
ed. Promiscuous breeding and inadequate nourishment largely ac-
count for the poor quality of the Indian cattle. The average yield
of milk per cow per annum is 413 lbs. which is the lowest figure in the
world. In a deteriorated condition, the milk production per cow in
our country is the lowest in the whole world as the following statis-
tics will show —
Per cow
per annum
India
.. 30 gallons
Sweden
Belgium
. . 362 „
Switzerland
Denmark
.. 387 „
Finland
Netherlands
.. 373 „
Per cow
per annum
. . 326 gallons
.. 380
.. 344
tf
The Second Five-Year Plan contemplates the establishment of
36 milk supply unions, 12 largo scale co-operative creameries
and seven milk drying plants. Milk colonies have been coming
into existence during past few years in various parts of the
country. The most notable and spectacular arc the Aarey colony of
Bombay and Haringhata Colony, Calcutta. The Second Plan con-
templates doubling milk production in India over the next 10 years.
POULTRY — India has about 6.7 million fowls and 6.3 million
ducks. The important poultry-producing areas are Madras (25.2%),
West Bengal (12.6%), Bihar (11.2%), Assam (8.9%), Bombay
(8.5%), Madhya Pradesh (6%). The per capita consumption per
year of poultry meat in India is as low as 0.29 lb. as against 29.32
lbs in U.S.A., 20.94 lbs in Canada, and 13.23 lbs in Prance.
The bulk of poultry population of India consists of the
indigenous or ordinary country fowls dispersed in small units
in the rural areas and maintained by poor people. India has a
total fowl population of 116 million, of which 15 million are laying
hens. The proportion of fowl population to human population in
India is relatively low as it is only 15 hen per 100 of population
Poultry is divided in India into tw'o groups — (1) Fowls comprising
whereas in U.S.A. and Europe it is 300 hens per 100 of population,
hens, cocks and chickens, (2) Ducks comprising ducks, drakes and
ducklings.
Poultry-keeping is an important subsidiary industry of the
poorer classes. Indigenous poultry, of low grade, produce on an
average 60 small-sized eggs per year. Steps are being taken to
272
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
improve them by grading up with foreign breeds like Rhode Island
Red, White Leghorn and Minorca.
The exotic breeds such as Rhode Island Reds, White Leghorns,
Black Minorcas, Orpingtons and Australorps which have been fully
acclimatised to Indian conditions are now strong favourites of poultry
farms in this county.
It has been estimated that India has approximately 16 million
ducks, representing 18 per cent of the domesticated duck population
of the world. Madras and Bengal account for more than 75 per
cent of ducks in India. The average annual egg production of the
Indian duck is 90 to 100. Ducks are hardy and are free from con-
tagious disease. The birds are largely reared in the eastern and
southern parts of the country where there is abundant supply of
water.
Methods of Poultry Improvement — (1) Importation of large
number of day-old chickens from abroad and rear them on Govern-
ment farms. When these chickens come of age, they should be used
as the basic stock for the poultry production centres. (2) _ Im-
provement of the indegenons stock by selective breeding and distri-
bution of pure-bred hens and cocks like white Leghorns, Rhode
Island Reds and Minorcas for grading the desi birds. (3) Installa-
tion of large scale hatchery in two and three centres for hatching
chicks for the poultry keepers. (4) Marketing of eggs.
Poultry Institutes — (1) Government Farm, Sultanpur Road.
Lucknow imparts elementary, intermediate and high standard
courses in poultry science. It also deals in all sorts of the poultry
requisites. (2) Mission Poultry Farm. Katpadi, North Arcot deals
with current scientific work in the field. (3) East Punjab Govern-
ment Poultry Institute, Gurdaspur imparts short courses in poultry.
(4) Rural uplift Department, Santineketan, Bolpnr also imparts
instruction in the poultry keeping in India. (5) Asian Research Ins-
titute of Poona is the only one institute of this nature throughout
Bombay State. (6) Government Poultry Farm, Bhopal and Idlssion
Poultry Farm, Etah are good poultry farms though they do not
impart instruction on the subject.
ANIMAL PRODUCTS — ^Besides animal products of milk and
wool, the principal animal products of India are blood, bones, ivory,
tallow, and hides and skins. Bones are used as manure and for
manufacture of buttons, handles, toys, glue and as a source of
superphosphates. Supply of horns comes from U.P., Punjab, Madras
and Bengal. Buttons, toys, manure, glue, gelatine, etc., are made
by horns. Ivory is used for the manufacture of ivory goods, bones
and teeth. THs supply comes from Assam, Western Ghats and
Mysore. Tallow is derived from the fat of beef, mutton and goats.
Its printing uses are as an adulterant, lubricant, and illnminant and
in the manufacture of soaps and candles.
There is considerable export and trade in livestock products.
While dairj' products, such as condensed milk and cream, milk foods
for infants and invalids, butter and cheese comprise the main imports,
bones and horns are exported. , At the same time, there is a two-way
trade in hides, skins and wool.
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
273
PROVINCIAL DISTRIBUTION — The largest number of oxen is
found in the Uttar Pradesh which possesses 23-0 million heads or
nearly 14 p.c. of the total for the country. This is closely followed
by Bengal where there are nearly 22-6 million oxen or approximately
13'6 p.c.; Madras 9’6 p.c. of the total. For Buffaloes : U.P. — 9-9
mfflion or 29 p.c. ; Punjab — 6-92 million or 13-2 p.c.; Madras — 6’1
million or 13 p.c.; Bengal — 1-1 million or 2-3 p.c. of total buffaloes in
India.
The densities of oxen per 10 acres of cultivated area, per 100
persons and per square mile of the country as a whole are 4343 and
106 heads respectively. The all-India average density of buffaloes
works out to 12, 12 and 30 respectively.
TRADE IN CATTLE — Bengal is the principal importer, follow-
ed by Bombay, U.P. and Bihar. The main exporting province in
order of merit are Punjab, Bihar and Orissa.
ANIMAL DISEASES — Remarkable progress has been made in
combating cattle diseases during the last few years. Nearly two
lakhs of cattle are estimated to be affected every year by infectious
diseases and the mortality is about one-fifth and loss is about Rs. 20
crores annually on money value. There are ten veterinary colleges in
India one each at Gauhati, Patna, Calcutta, Bombay, Mathura, Hy-
derabad, Madras, Hisaar, Bikaner and Jabalpur. The chief research
centre is the Indian Veterinary Research Institute at Mukteshwar
(U.P.) and its branch at Izatnagar, near Barielly. This institute
is maintained by the Central Government. The Indian Veterinary
Research Institute also manufactures large quantities of sera and
vaccines. Serum institutes have also been opened in various states,
such as Bombay, Madras, Hyderabad and Uttar Pradesh.
There is a Central Rinderpest Control Committee which has
drawn up tentative scheme for eradicating rinderpset which kills
400,000 animals a year. ,
LIVESTOCK AND POULTRY IN INDIA
(In thousands)
Livestock
Cattle
Buffaloes
Sheep
Goats
Horses &
1940
. . 137,929
40,125
41,506
60,263
Ponies
1,780
1945
. . 136,739
40,732
37,728
46,302
1,398
1951
. . 165,099
43.351
38,829
47,077
1,614
Mides
Donkeys
Camels
Pigs
Total
1940
60
1,186
617
2,702
live-stock
276,148
1945
45
1,131
666
3,709
268.440
1951
60
1,239
629
4,420
292,218
Poultry
1940
Fowls
. . 65,062
Ducks
2,346 1945
Fowls
54,666
Dtteks
3.681
18
1961
67,136
6,264
FORESTS IN INDIA
FOREST WEALTH OF INDIA— The forests in India play an
important part in country’s agricultural and economic developments.
The forests cover 280,348 sq. miles or about 22 per cent of the
total geographical area of the country. This is a low proportion
compared with most other countries of the world. According to
experts, one-third of the area should be under forests to preserve
climatic condition. Even the area is not evenly distributed oyer
different parts of the country. The Forest Policy Resolution
of May 12, 1952, therefore suggested that India as a whole
should aim at maintaining one-third of its _ total land area
under forests, proportion being 60 per cent in the Himalayas,
Deccan and other mountainous tracts and 20 per cent in_ the
plains. They provide employment for nearly a million
people. The role of forests in conditioning the_ weather, in pre-
venting the erosion of soil and in short in maintaining the phy-
sical condition is not yet fully appreciated. India contains an infinite
variety of types of forests vegetation, governed by the vari-
ations in climate, soil elevation and other local factors. The
forests of India are a source of considerable wealth. They yield valu-
able timber. Our railway system leans heavily on Indian timber ;
paper, plywood, bobbins, match industries depend on timber resources.
The forests also yield large quantities of fuel. The variety and
abundance of Indian economic forest products are perhaps unequalled
in any other similar area in the world. Teak, sal, deodar, chir and
sheesham and many varieties of useful timber come from forests.
Besides providing timber, fuel and fodder, forests 3 neld medicinal
herbs and raw materials for the manufacture of paper, matches,
rubber, resin and terpentine.
Full value of India’s forest wealth is not to be assessed merely
in terms of money, timber output, fuel and innumerable by-products ;
for forest land serves other ends, by mitigating the extremes of the
fiercest climate in the world and breaking the force of the world’s
heaviest rainfall.
FOREST TYPES OF INDIA — is divided into five types —
(1) Evergreen, (2) Deciduous, (3) Dry, (4) HUl, (6) rfdoZ or
Lnttoral. _ Evergreen flourishes where rainfall is 80 to 120".
Such regions are the West Coast of the Peninsula and the
Eastern Sub-Himalayan _ tract. These forests include many
species of great economic value such as ebony, teak, rosewood,
ironwood, bamboos, neem and tamarind. Decidtwzts (rainful 60
to 80”) occupies the larger part of the Deccan and is also
known as monsoon forests. The trees are large-sized and form very
remarkable timbers such as, teak, sal, paduk, redwood, sandal wood,
anjan etc. The Dry forests (rainfall 30 to 40") are found in the
desert regions of Rajasthan and the Punjab and the plants are charac-
FORESTS IN IFTOIA
275
terised by thick and fleshy stems and leaves and mostly consist of
thickets of shrubs and a few stunted trees ; many of them are
leafless. The Hill forests are found in South India above 5,000 feet
and in the Himalayas above 3,000 feet altitude. The trees are ever-
green, of which the following are the most prominent — oak, picea,
deodar, pines, firs, chestnut, walnut, maple, elm ash, birches, laurels,
poplar, rhododendron and spices of abics. The lAttoral forests are
found in the deltas of the Ganges, the Mahanadi, the Indus and also
to some extent in the regions washed by the high tide and salt water.
They are rich sources of fuel. These forests are known as Man-
grove Forests.
_ NATIONAL FOREST POLICY — The national forest policy of
India known as Forest Policy Resolution was enunciated in
1952. _ Among the landmarks of the new policy is the
recognition to the intrinsic right of forests to a permanent
and adequate share of land. So an indication has been pro-
vided of the proportion of land which should be permanently main-
tained under forests. This naturally varies with the configuration
of the ground and rainfall. Thus, while in the flat Indo-Gangetic
plain where slope is imperceptible and erosion is not a serious pro-
blem, the average proportion of forest land to be reserved need not
be more than 20 p.c. of the total land area ; in the mountainous tracts,
with higher rainfall, a much greater area (about 60 p.c.) must be
maintained under forest growth. This means that India as a whole
should aim at maintaining one-third of its total land area under
forests, the proportion being 60 p.c. in the Himalayan, Deccan and
other mountainous tracts and 20 p.c. in the plains. The new policy
directs pointed attention towards reconditioning of hills and dales,
the immobilization of the Rajasthan desert, the prevention of the
encroachment of sea-sands on coastal tracts, the rationalization of
shifting cultivation and_ control of soil erosion in general. The policy
legislates for the functional classification of forests such as "protec-
tion,” “national” and ‘village’ forests.
CLASSIFICATION OF FORESTS — Forests in India are classi-
fied according to — (a) Ownership, (6) Legal status, (c) Composition.
From the ownership point of view, forest area is divided into,
(f) States, (ii) Communal and (Hi) Private. The forests owned by
State Forest Departments comprise nearly 95.4 p.c. of the total
forest area, viz., 269,915 sq. miles. The Communal and Private
forests are now only 4.6 p.c. of the total forest area.
From the administrative point of view, forests have been classi-
fied into Reserved and Protected and Unclassified. The first cate-
gory is reserved for Government use and no entry is allowed to any
member of the public. The protected forests are under the control
of the Department, but contracts for their exploitation are given and
the public is allowed to make use of them within the terms of the
contract. The Unclassified forests consist of the shrubs and trees in
villages. They are not under the control of the Department.
From the composition point of view, forests are classified into
coniferous and non-coniferous. In India, forests are mostly non-
(276
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
‘coniferous or broad leaves. This is natural in a tropical country.
On the hilly parts of the country, however, coniferous and in the
valleys and terai areas mixed types of forests grow.
From the point view of the outturn, forests are classified into
Merchantable and Inaccessible (unprofitable). The Merchantable
.forests constitute 73.1 p.c. of the total forest areas, 55.1 p.c. being
Heserved and Protected. Nearly 68,000 sq. miles or 26.9 p.c. are
(inaccessible and therefore unprofitable.
CENTRAL BOARD OF FORESTRY— The Government of India
have constituted a Central Board of Forestry in 1950 for the purpose
of evolving an all-India policy to increase the area under forests
The functions of the Board are — (1) Co-ordination and integration
,of the forest policy pursued by States in the management of their
forests, (2) adoption of conservation measures affecting forests re-
.Eources and soil, (3) integration of plans for land use and national
•reconstruction in which forestry has come to play a progrressively
important role, (4) promotion of legislation considered necessary
for various States for the management of private forests, (5) ref-
lation and development of forests in inter-state river valleys which
are the concern of the Central Government, (6) Maintenance of ade-
quate standards for training of officers, (7) co-ordination of forest
research conducted in Central and State institutes and (8) any other
matters affecting forestry, which are relevant to the objective of the
Board.
AFFORESTATION & SOIL CONSERVATION— Forests must
be planted and reared continually so as to protect the land from the
ravages of erosion, to refertilize the soil, to arrest aridity and modify
the climate. Reafforestation is necessary to provide cheap fuel and
fodder, new grazing lands, beautiful landscapes etc. Cultm-able Gov-
ernment land should be afforested by the Forest IJepartment.
Government can assist by supplying seeds or saplings and give
expert advice. Over-grazing, field cultivation and deforestation
are the main causes of denudation of thousands of acres of unculti-
vated land. State Forest Department should take remedial measures,
puch as, contour trenching of fields, silt catching, building dams and
planting trees as well as rotational grazing schemes. In certain
areas, steps should be taken for controlling pine tapping for resin
extraction to ensure that trees are not killed and the ground is not
exposed to heavy fellings. The work on the reclamation of waste
lands and control of floods should be taken in hand at once. Canal
plantation should be laid out by the Irrigation Department. Nur-
series for growing and distributing saplings, fooder trees should be
established.
The Government have already undertaken the following measures
for the progress of afforeation in India — (1) A scheme for checking
the spread of the Rajasthan desert by means of planting trees on the
present bounderies has already been drawn up (2) From July 1950
a campaign for planting new trees, ya7ia Mahotsava has been
launched. It has become an annual national festival and has given a
great -fillip to afforestation.
FORESTS IN INDIA
27 . 7 >
Soil Conservation Board was fofmed in 1953 to organise ‘ co-'
ordinate and start soil conservation, to assist the States and River-
Valley Authorities in drawing up schemes for soil conservation, to.
arrange for the training of technical personnel and to recommend-
financial help for schemes to the States and River Valley Authorities.
The Board has taken over the Desert Afforestation Research Station
at Jodhpur and established four new research-cum-demonstration
centres.
ADMINISTRATIVE SET-UP — Under the Constitution, the juris-
diction over forests vests in the States (Item No 19, List II of the-
Seventh Schedule). The revenue from these is derived from the sale
of timber, fuel, bamboo, fodder grass and other minor products, such
as lac, tanning materials, gums, resins, medicinal herbs, etc. It also’
includes fees for grazing and the proceeds of the sale of confiscated
drift and -wind wood. Expenditure on the management and collection
of forest revenue is debited to the expenditure head “Forest”; Foresfr
Department is treated as a commercial department and the interest
on capital outlay is debited to it. Most of the capital experditure is'
however met out of current revenue.
The forest administration of the Government of India is carried
on in their Department of Agriculture. The Inspector-General of
Forests is the technical adviser to the Government in forest matters.
Forests are however, a provincial subject. For the purposes of admi-
nistration, the States are divided into one or more Forest Circles,
each in charge of a Conservator of Forests ; while in those States
where three or more forest circles exist, there is also a Chief Conser-
vator who is the head of the Department of his State. Circles arc
de-vided into a number of Forest Devisions, in-charge of members of
the Superior Forest Service. Each Devisions contains a number of
Rangers in charge of Forest Rangers or Deputy Rangers ; heavy Di-
visions are also sometimes divided into sub-divisions. The Ranges
are sub-divided into a number of rounds and beats.
FOREST EDUCATION AND RESEARCH— The scientific forest
management in India owes its inception to Dr. Brandis, a professor
of Bombay from the University of Bonn, who was engaged by the
Govemment of India in 1856 as Superintendent of teak forests in
Burma. Later in 1864 he was appointed first Inspector-General of
Forests in India. It was a result of his initiative that Forest De-
partments were organised throughout India.
The nucleus of forest research and education in India is trace-
able to a forest school started in 1878 in Dehra Dun under the aus-
pices of the Survey of India. The school enjoys the distinction of
being first of its kind in British Commonwealth. By 1906 this insti-
tution became the nucleus around which the existing organisation of
the Forest Research Institute and Colleges have been built up.
Primarily the work of the Forest Research Institute is research
into problems connected -with rearing and protecting India’s forests
and enhancing their value and usefulness, and secondly the more effi-
cient and profitable utilisation of timber and various other produce
of these forests. Four excellent museums are maintained by the
278
HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
Institute. Of the four museums, one is knoum as_ the timbei
museum -n-hich is devoted to a display of the great variety of India’s
timbers in the form of polished and unpolished boards. It also con-
tains demonstration models of wood seasoning, wood preserving and
timber testing installations. The second museum is arranged to
inicate the infinite range of India’s forest products and to indicate
the methods of their extraction and utilisation. The third museum
houses large scale models to demonstrate silvicultural practices and
the evils of soil erosion. The fourth museum draws attention to the
extent of insect damage to Indian trees and the timber.
The following is the brief account of the activities of the Forest
Eesearch Institute — (1) Silvieidture, (2) Botany, (3) Mycology,
(4) Forest Entomology, (5) Wood. Anatomy, (6) Wood Seasoning,
(7) Wood Preservation, (8) Coposite TFood, (9) Timber Mechanics',
(10) Cellulose and paper, (11) Cheinistry of Forest and minor
Forest Products, (12) Statistical, (13) Publicity and Liaison.
The Indian Forest College at Dehia Dun was originally started in
1926 for training I. F. S. officers, but was closed after 1932 and was
restarted for training for Superior Forest Service officers in the Pro-
vincial Forest Service. The College is housed in the Forest Research
Institute buUding and well-equipped with lecture and common rooms
and biological and chemical laboratories. Course covers two years
only. Those students are admitted who are deputed by a State and
are assured of employment on completion of the course. In view of
the great demand for admission, the Government of India took over
the Coimbatore Forest College in 1948 which has been greatly
expanded.
Indian Forest Rangers College, formerly known as the Forest
School is also situated in Dehra Dun. The course lasts for two
years. Another forest institute has been started at Bangalore, the
first institution in India outside Dehra Dun.
pfDIA’S FOREST PRODUCES AND USES— India has 2.50D
species of wood of which about 450 are commercially valuable.
Apart from timber for structural purposes and fuel, forests supply
wood from which an increasing variety of thingrs are made today.
Acetic acid, acetone, methyl alcohol, certain oils and creosote are
some of the derivatives of wood. We may mention, also, valuable
timber species such as conifers (pines, firs, deodars'), the principal
species^ of the sub-tropical zone, and the well-lmowTi teak which is
met with throughout the Deccan plateau. The chief among other
species of commercial importance are dipterocarpus, acacias, sissoo,
sandahoood and bamboos. The forests in addition, yield a bewilder-
ing variety of minor forest products which are utilised in indigenous
medicine and industry. The various plants and their derivatives ac-
count for items such as essential oils, resin, gums, medicinal herbs,
fatty oils, vegetable dyes, tans, soap-berries, fibres, flooses, edible
wild plants, canes, grasses. This is not all. Animal products such
as honey, beewax, lac, bones, hides and horns play an important part
in the home market and abroad. Out-turn of produce of Indian
forests is of two kinds : (1) Major produce consisting of timber and
FORESTS IN INDIA
279
firewood and (2) minor produce consisting of all other products such
as lac, tanning materials, essential oils, turpentine and resin.
Minor Forest Products — The variety and abundance of minor
forest products in India are remarkable. There are over 3,000
species of plants, besides a large number of animal products. Medi-
cinal and poisonous plants, essential oils, resins, fatty oils and fats,
waxes, starches, gums, mucilages, tans, dyes, bamboos and canes,
fibres, flosses and grasses, animal products, such as honey and lac,
and materials for packing and wrapping can be exploited.
Oil trees are Chandan or Sandalwood found in Southern India.
(Mysore, Coorg, Western Ghats, Nilgiris). It is a hard, close grain-
ed, yellowish brown wood, strongly scented by the oil. It makes
beautifully carved boxes and small articles. The oil is also extracted
from the seeds and nuts of various other trees, such as Chahnugra,
Satinwood, Croton, Coconut, Oil Palm, Pine, Deodar, Kusum, Neem,
Mahua, Garjan.
The gum and resin yielding trees of India are Babul, Catechu,
Sal, Pine, Mango and Banyan. Asofoedita or king is available in
Kashmir only.
Sal is one of the most important timber trees of India and very
hard, heavy and tough wood with reddish brown colour. It is a large
tree with glossy foliage and grows freely in the Northern and Central
Indian regions. The wood is largely used for building construction
and railway sleepers.
Teak {Sagun) is a large deciduous tree grown mainly in the
frost-free parts of India and is a strong wood of great durability.
It is immune to attacks of white ants and insects for very long
periods. It grows in the Deccan plateau in Madhya Pradesh,
Orissa, Bihar, Bombay and Madras. As it does not corrode steel, it
is mainly used for boat and ship-building, railway carriages and
sleepers, tool handles and furniture, etc.
Arjun is heavier and harder wood than teak. It grows all over
the deciduous region.
Kusum is a very heavy, hard and tough wood. It grows in the
deciduous forests. ‘Lac’ insects are also reared on it.
Ebony is a very dark green or greenish black wood of great
strength. It is obtained all over the deciduous regions excepting
N.E. parts.
Siris is a fairly strong wood. It is obtained all over deciduous
forests.
Palas is important for its crop of ‘lac’ insects. It grows largely
in Chotanagpur and also over the plains of northern India.
Mahua is very common in Chotanagpur area. Its flowers are
important articles of food. A course spirit is distilled from Mahua.
Scmul is well-known for the cotton it yields. Its wood is very
soft and perishable and is suitable for matchbox manufacture.
Jarool is of medium strength and is employed for making cheap
classes of furniture. It is found mainly in Assam, West Bengal, and
is also found in Chotanagpur.
Deodar or Himalayan cedar is the most important timber tree
of the western Himalayas. It grows from 100 to 200 feet in height.
280
HINDUSTAN^ YEAR-BOOK
The wood is moderately hard, scented, oily and very durable. It is
used for building construction, particularly for doors and windows.
Pine — ^The Blue Pine or Kail as it is popularly known is a large
ever-green conifer with bluish feathery foliage. It often_ reaches
120 ft. in height and is found throughout the temperate Himalayan
regpon at altitudes ranging from 6,000 to 10,000 feet. The heart-
wood is of good quality and frequently used in general carpentary
and furniture.
Shisham (Sissoo) is a large deciduous tree which gprows near
river banks from Punjab to Assam. It is a favourite road-side tree
and is easily grown. The sap-wood is perishable but the heart-
wood is heavy, hard and durable. It is largely used for fumitiure.
It also makes lasting carts, boats and v/heel spok^.
Toon — is a large tree of rapid growth and thrives in moist loca-
lities throughout India, often reaching a height of 80 feet. Its red
timber is very durable, yet. not too heavy and is largely used for
furniture. It takes a high polish.
Oak is available in Eastern Himalayas, Khasi Hills and Mani-
pur. It is used for buildings, agricultural implements, axe-handles.
Rosewood is found in various places from Nepal to Travancore.
It is used extensively for furniture, cabinet-work, keels of vessels,
agricultural implements, combs, ornamental articles, finely carved
chairs and tables.
Satinwood is found in the dry forests of Circars, Konkan,
Deccan and Kamatak and is common in Satpura range. It is large-
ly used for cabinet work, picture frames, furniture, etc.
Fir is grown in outer Himalayas, the Punjab and Kashmir and
is used for packing cases, crates, shingles, boards and paper pulp.
Babul tree grows in Western India and is used for all forms of
agricultural implements.
Sundri is available in the deltaic regions of Bengal, particularly
in Sunderbans and in the coasts of Orissa. It is a very hard wood.
Canes and Bamboos are extensively found in Eastern Nepal,
Sikkim, Bhutan, Assam, Bengal, Madhya Pradesh. Deccan, Konkan
and Coromandal Coast. Bamboos grow everywhere in India. It
has nurnerous varieties, from giant bamboo of Assam to dwarfs of
dry region. It_ is used for paper making and for other various
objects. Cane is used for basket works, mats, walking sticks, ropes
and in the manufacture of paper.
Grasses are generally used for fodder for the cattle. Sahai
grass is used for paper_ making. Mtmjh grass growing in all parts
of India and specially in the Punjab is used for thatching, paper-
making, chairs, baskets, ropes and cordage. Rhea grass found in
Assam and Bengal is used for belting, sheeting, lace, net, cordage
sacking, etc.
Lac is an important Indian forest product. It is produced from
an insect which secretes its larvae on certain class of trees. These
trees are palass, peepul and kusum. Lac is produced throughout the
warm tropical areas of the whole of India. The principal places of
production are M.P., Bihar, Bengal, Assam, and Gujarat. Chota-
nagpur in Bihar raises 60 per cent of India’s total. Lac is extensively •
FORESTS IN INDIA
281 -
■used in the manufacture of gramophone records, plastics, lacquer work,
mouldings of ornaments, paint and varnishes, sealing wax etc. Only
2 per cent of the production is consumed in India as rest is exported.
Bee Wax and Honey are also important forest products.
Bee wax is used in candles, foundry moulding, calico printing and
medicine. It is largely used by the shoemakers of India.
Gums and Resins — gum and resin yielding trees in India are
Babul, Catechu, Sal, Pino, Mango and Banyan and are worked for-
making resin and turpentine oil. Resin is used for shellac adultera-
tion, in paper mills, soap factories etc., while turpentine has demand
for medicine and varnish.
Tanning materials — ^various tanning materials are found from
Indian forests, most important of which are myrobalan. Myrobalans
jrrow in abundance in Madras, Bombay, West Bengal, Chotanagpur,
Orissa and other places. Myrobalan is a great tanning materiak
The alkali of myrobalans is useful for preparing different dyes by
mixing with various inprredients.
Sandalwood is used for producing sandalwood oil and from oil
soaps and scents arc made. It is mainly obtained in Mysore.
Classification of Forest Areas
(In thousand sq. miles)
1949-50
1962-53
Geographical area of India
. . 1,267
266
1,267
280
Forest area in the country
A. By types of Forests
1. Merchantable
212
216
1. Unprofitable
64
64
B. By legal Status
1. Reserved
124
134
2. Protected
38
63
3. Unclassod
104
93
C. By Composition
1. Conifers
14
12
2. Sal
39
43
3. Teak
17
19
4. Miscellaneous
196
206
AREA
1946- 47
1947- 48
1948- 49
1949- 60
OF FOREST LANDS AND OUTTURN OF FOREST
PRODUCE
Uvclassi-
Area of
Reserve
Protected
fied State
Forest
Total area
under for-
State
Forests
Forests
etc.
est dept.
(Sq. m.)
(Sq.m.)
(Sq. m.)
(Sq.m.)
(Sq. m.)
631,418
65,773
7,826
16,421
89,019
1,080,919
98,476
14,613
24,162
138,161
1,219,836
101,638
17,949
27,735
160,104
1,266,812
130,641
24,088
■ 27,399
194,836
282
HINDUSTAN YBAK-BOOK
OUTTURN OF FOREST PRODUCE
Proportion of forests Timber & Fuel Minor Produce
to area of State (ooo cu. ft.) (In ]akhs of Rs,)
1946-47
. . 14-1
316.334
235-54
1947-48
. . 12-8
362,017
302-76
1948-49
. . 13-1
859,673
367-77
1949-60
. . 16-4
438,996
479-84
CLASSIFICATION OF FOREST AREA
I.
11 .
III.
IV.
P.c. to the
total area
Total Population (millions) 320.2*
Total general area 1,266^90 100
Forest area 282,840 22'3
Classification of area other than forest land —
(i) land not available for cultivation 176,395 13‘8
(a) land put to non-agricultural uses 47,909 3'8
(b) barren and unculturable land 86,533 6'8
(ii) other uncultivated land excluding fallow
lands 176,439 13-9
(a) parmanent pastures and grazing lands 32,611 2-6
(b) miss, tree crops & groves not included
in the net area sown 52,398 4-1
(c) culturable waste 90,558 7-1
(iii) Fallow lands 108,170 8*5
(a) fallow lands other than current fallows 44,602 3’5
(b) current fallows 49,802 3'9
(iv) Net area sown 463,106 36-6
•Including Jammu & Kashmir.
DAIRY FARMING
Dairying like ag^riculture is one of the basic industries of India
and milk and milk products contributed to no less than Es. 620
crores to the national dividend — almost as much as all the factory
establishments put together. The huge quantity of about 1,500,000
maunds of milk produced per day in the country is obtained from
about 67,000,000 cows and buffaloes maintained in nearly 40,000,000
small fragmented holdings throughout the country.
The Planning Commission correctly holds that despite the fact
that milk is a very important food for a country like India with a
very large vegetarian population and the existence of a large number
of milch cattle in the country, dairying which can provide ample scope
of fruitful whole-time and part-time employment to the unemployed
and under-employed millions thronging the countryside has been in a
backward condition simply for the fact that it has not received the
attention it deserves. Poor quality cattle, insufficiency of feed and
fodder, high incidence of disease and lack of organised production,
improper handling of milk and milk products are problems that re-
quire urgent solution. The Planning Commission opined “the im-
provement of cattle depends primarily upon proper policy and pro-
gramme for breeding and feeding” and suggested the introduction
of schemes for key villages. Gosadan, artificial insemination centres
and the use of oil cakes, bone dust and fish meal as cattle food.
MILK ADULTERATION — ^The Agricultural Marketing Adviser to
the Government of India says in his report of 1950 that “adulteration
of foodstuffs, including milk is not uncommon in Western countries,
but the position is nowhere as bad as in our country. Adulteration
is so widespread that consumers have became almost indifferent to
quality.”
Legal standards prescribed under State Food Adulteration Acts
are lower than the constants for locally produced pure milk and
therefore leave room for 'legalized' adulteration with water or skim-
med milk. There is a strong feeling in the country that official con-
trol of the quality of market milk has been very lax.
The enforcement of the Food Adulteration Acts which rests
entirely in the hands of the municipal authorities has been most un-
satisfactory. The municipal authorities have therefore been urged
to be more vigilant in the matter of quality control of milk and dairy
products.
POOR YIELD — The average annual yield of milk per cow in
India is 413 lbs. which is about the lowest in the world, as com-
pared with 8,000 lbs. in the Netherlands, 7,000 in Australia, 6,000
in Sweden and over 6,000 in the U.S.A. The following table gives the
maximum annual yields of world’s finest dairybreeds : —
284
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Breed
Holstein Friesian
Milking Shorthorr
Ayrshire
Brown Swiss
Milk Butterfat
(000 lbs)
Breed Milk Butterfat
(000 lbs) (000 lbs)
38.6
1.4
Guernsey
24.0
1.0
32.5
1.6
19.7
1.1
31.2
1.4
Jersey
23.7
1.2
27.5
1.1
If
17.9
1.2
According to the livestock census of 1961, India had 165.09*
million cows and 43.35 million buffaloes. The daily average quantity
of milk available per head in India is about 5.8 oz ; quite a few do not
get any milk at ail or even any milk products. In some cities the
average quantity of milk consumed per person is not even one ounce
a day.
As compared to this situation, the daily average production per
head in New Zealand is 244 oz., 148 in Denmark, 37 in U.S.A. and
140 oz. in Britain. The consumption figures are 35 oz in U.S.A., 30 in
Britain, 56 in New Zealand and 61 in Sweden. In other countries the
yield of cows per lactation averages from 3,000 to 4,000 lb, but the
better Indian breeds yield only 1,500 lbs.
LOW MILK CONSUMPTION— -According to the 1951 cattle-
census, the average per capita consumption of milk and milk-products
works out at 5.5 ounces per day. The consumption varies consider-
ably in different parts of the country and among the various classes
of population. It is as high as 16.89 oz. in the Punjab and 15.72 oz.
in Rajasthan, while in Orissa, it is as low as 2.64 oz. Except Punjab
and Rajasthan, the major States of the country are deficient in milk-
consumption by the standard of ten ounces per day recommended by
nutrition experts.
The gross annual milk production in India was 481.66 million
maunds in 1945 and 620.43 million maunds in 1951, out of which the
quantum used as fluid milk came to 174.09 m. mds. (36.1 p.c.) and
195.28 m. mds (37.53 p.c.) respectively ; about 66 p.c. of the total
yield is marketable, the balance being fed to the calves or retained
for home consumption. Excepting some ‘Milk Pockets’ or areas of
concentrated milk production in Bombay, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Madhya Pradesh and Saurashtra, where a large quantity of surplus
mUk is available during the flush season, milk is produced in the
Indian villages on a small scale — ^the average daily output amounting
to a mere 2.5 mds.
RESEARCH ASSOCIATIONS — Indian Dairy Science Associa-
tion was formed in 1948 with the object of advancing the cause of the
science of dairying in India by co-ordinating and unifying the acti-
vities of dairy scientists in the country towards rapid advancement
of nation’s dairy industry.
Indian Dairy Council has been_ inaugurated in 1948 with
the object of promotion and safeguarding the interests of the dairy
indust^ in India. It is a common platform on which representatives
of various interests of the milk industry, such as producers, consu-
mers. traders and technicians could meet together for developing it on
sound and economic footing.
LARGE SCALE PRODUCTION OF MILK— Steps are being taken
DIAEY FIRMING
285
by several States to organise the supply of milk on the Governmental
basis. Government of Bombay has established a very large milk
colony at Aarey near Bombay where about 15,000 animals are housed
under the most modem conditions and the milk is supplied to Bombay
city after pasteurisation. Similar big milk colony has been establi-
shed by the_ Government of the West Bengal at Haringhata near
Calcutta which supplies milk to Calcutta through numerous milk
depots. Milk supply schemes are operating in various States.
DAIRY EDUCATION — There is an Indian Dairy Research Ins-
titute at Bangalore. The Institute is a central organisation for dairy
research and education under the direct control of the Ministry
of Food and Agriculture. Apart from its administrative ofBce and
dairy, there are four research sections, namely. Dairy Husban-
dry, Dairy Chemistry, Dairy Technology and Dairy Bacteriology.
T^e most important work carried out by the Dairy Husbandry sec-
tion relates to scientific breeding, feeding and management of dairy
cattle in order to increase their milk yield. The institute also forms
the centre for artificial insemination of dairy cattle. The Institute
offers training for the Indian Dairy diploma course for two years to
students and a short course of three months’ duration to men in the
trade deputed by the Government. Besides these, the Institute
entertains a limited number of science graduates as honorary
research workers and it also offers a post-graduate course for 16
months leading to the Associateship of Indian Dairy ' Research Insti-
tute. The Veterinary Research Institute at Izzatnagar, the Dairy
Research Institute at Bangalore and Cattle Breeding Station at
Jabalpur carry out research on animal husbandry. The Veterinary
Research Institute, besides teaching and advisory work, manufac-
tures biological products. The Dairy Institute carries on development
work in respect of pedigree herds of Red Sindhi, Gir and Tarparkar
cows and Murrah buffaloes. The Cattle Breeding Station carries
out cross-breeding of cattle under controlled conditions. The foun-
dation stone for the National Dairy Research Institute, Kamal was
laid on August 7, 1955. The institute will have seven divisions— dairy
husbandry, dairy technology, dairy machinery (Engineering), dairy
chemistry, dairy bacteriology, nutrition and dairy extension. In
addition to this, the institute will have a degree college in dairy
science and an economic and statistics section to plan surveys of cost
of milk production and distribution.
GHEE PRODUCTION IN INDIA — The annual production ot
ghee in Indian Union is estimated at one crore and fifteen lakh
maunds i.c., half of what it was in undivided India ten years ago.
In order of importance, the main ghee-producing areas are Punjab,
U.P., ^ladras and Bihar which account for 15-7, 13-8, 9-8 and 6'4 of
the total production respectively. Thus three-fifths of the ghee
production is concentrated in Northern and Western India and the
remaining two-fifths is scattered in the rest of the country. Taking
the country as a whole, India produces 8-9 maunds of ghee per
square mile, 21-4 maunds per village and 3-6 maunds for 100 persons.
The annual per capita consumption of ghee in India is highest in
286
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Gvralior and Sind 'witli 15-5 and 11‘2 seers respectively and the lowest
in Hyderabad and Bengal with 1-1 and 1-3 seers respectively. Of
the total ghee production nearly 30 p.c. is retained by the producers
for domestic consumption and 70 p.c. is marketed.
India imports about 66,000 maunds of ghee mostly by land
frontier routes from Nepal. India also exports about 66,000 maunds
of ghee to the Straits Settlements, Burma, Federated Malaya States
and Africa. {Ghee Marketing Report of the Government of India,
1948).
GHEE ADULTERATION — ^With a view to distinguish genuine
from adulterated ghee, the Government of India have been develop-
ing an organisation for grading and marking of genuine ghee. The
grading organisation started its work in 1938 and its mark is now
known as Agamark. In 1947 the amount of agamarked ghee was
about 2h lakh maunds. The inadequacy will be clear when we see
that this 2i- lakh maunds of certified agamarked ghee constitutes
only 2-2 per cent, of the ghee produced in the coimtry. On an average
only one sample is collected and examined for every 550 maunds of
ghee consumed in the country. Experience has shown, generally
speaking, 50 per cent of the sample tested are found to be
adulterated.
At present the grading under Agamark is voluntary. The ghee
adulteration by mixing Vanaspati (hydrogenated oil) has become so
widespread that the Government of India have been compelled to
put the matter in the hands of an expert committee, known as Ghee
Adulteration Committee which has recommended that every lot of
Vanspati produced in a factory should be accompanied by a certifi-
cate that it gives Baudouin test ; that the Vanaspati should be colour-
ed orange by using carotine oil concentrate as colouring medium, in
addition to sesame oil ; and that the Vanaspati should be fortified by
synthetic vitamin ‘A’ so that its nutritive value may be increased.
The Government have accepted the first and the last recommenda-
tions. As regards second, further experiments are to be conducted,
for the colour suggested was unstable and involved expenditure in
dollars.
INCREASE OF WORLD POPULATION
The world population reached a record 2,652 million in mid-1954.
well over half live in Asia. Following are the details — of the 2652
million people in 1954, 1451 million lived in non-Soviet Asia,
404 million in Europe, 357 million in the Americas, 214 million in the
Soviet Union, 210 million in Africa and 14.4 million in Oceania.
National Populations — China had the world’s largest population
of 582 million, followed by India with 377 million, Soviet Union
214 million, the United States 162 million, Japan 88 million, Indonesia
81 million and Pakistan 80 million.
Population growth — ^Asia’s population increased by 21 million a
year, _ Latin ^ America by four million and those of North
America, Soviet Union, Europe and Africa by three million each.
(UJV. Demographic Year-Book, 1955).
WILD LIFE IN INDIA
India has a rich and varied fauna comprising fish, birds and
mammals. The diversity which manifests itself in the variations in
rainfall, temperature and climate, determine the distribution of its
wild life. India has all the types of forests with the result that
practically all types of birds and animals are found in India, i.e. from
animals like the Himalayan red bear, the snow leopard, musk-deer
etc. living near the perpetual snow line to tigers, elephants, rhino-
ceros, wild buffalo etc. living in the hot tropical forests. More than
600 different species of mammals are found in India. Our forests
perhaps have some of the rarest and most magnificent animals.
Among the cats, we have lions and tigers, besides panthers, cheetah,
wild cats etc. Then we have the elephant, lion, wild buffalo, rhino-
ceros etc which can he classed as rare species. The Indian bison is
the largest of the existing bovines and the Indian rhinoceros, the
greatest of all rhinoceroses now inhabiting the world. The Indian
elephant is much more handsome compared to its African cousin.
The deer family is still richer and some of the most beautiful species,
e.g. cheetal, black buck etc are found in India. Cheetal is considered
to be the most beautiful of all species of deer. Among the reptiles,
the most dreaded species like king cobra, cobra, krait, viper etc are
all present.
PHYSICAL REGIONS OF ANIMALS— For the purpose of
distinguishing the wild life in India, we can divide the country into
three broad physical regions — (1) Himalayas, (2) Indo-gangetio
Plain and (3) Deccan.
Himalayas — The Great Himalayan arc occupies the region bet-
ween the gorges of the Indus and the Brahmaputra covering a length
of about 1,500 miles. The Himalayas can again be divided into three
regions — Western Himalayas, Central Himalayas and Eastern
Himalayas.
Western Himalayas — supports rich and varied wild life — such
as markhor, ibex, wild yak, choral, Tibetan antelope, brown and
black bear, tahr, Kashmir stag or hangul, barking deer, snow
leopard, serow, goral, sambar and ammon. The markhor, wild sheep,
snow leopard and brown bear occur nearer the snow line above
10,000 feet on Tibetan border and in Ladakh in particular, one
comes up against ammon, Tibetan antelope, wild yak, bharal, ibex
and Tibetan gazelle.
Central Himalayas — ^While most of the Western Himalayan
wild life persists in this region, ibex and markhor disappear and
brown bear are seldom met with to the east of the Ganges.
Panther is plentiful. The main sports of the Central Himalayas
are Jaunsar-Bawar and Tehri-Garhwal and Kumann.
Eastern Himalayas — Both panther and tiger are common
along the foothills. Occasionally the great one-homed rhinoceros is
also met with.
288
HIIJDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Indo-Gangetic Plain — ^lies like a moat skirting round the Hinm-
layas from the Bay of Bengal upto the ^vestem boundaries of India.
The representative animals met -with in this region are — ^black buck,
nilgai and pigs in the centre, tiger, panther, sambar, barking deer,
elephant and rhinoceros. So in the foot of Himalayas vre have tiger,
panther, sambar, bear, barking deer, elephant, buffalo, and rhinoceros
(Assam and Bengal), chital, hog deer, swamp deer and _ four-
homed antelope. In central plain, we have black buck, nilgai, pig,
porcupine, in the Thar desert we find desert cat, desert fox, desert
hare and species of desert gerbilles. The moist eastern _ tracts
have rhinoceros, buffalo, swamp deer. In the Aravallis and
Southern Highlands, we have tiger, panther, sambar and barking deer.
Ueccan — Ihe JJeccan plateau have three distinct regions —
West Coast, East Coast and Central Plateau. In the open savannah
lands of the Deccan, we have gazelle, antelope, jungle cat, common
fox, mongoose, hyaenas, jackal, wolf, palm squirrel, hares and
rodents. In the deciduous forests, we have bison, sambhar, spotted
deer, sloth bear and wild dog. In more humid zone, we have swamp
deer, buffalo and elephant. In Nflgiris, Palnis and Anamalais and
evergreen forests of the Western Ghats, we have wild elephant,
bison. Nilgiri langur, lion-taUed macaque, Nilgiri brown mongoose
and Malabar civet. It may be noted that the exclusive feature of
the Deccan animal life is constituted by the spotted deer, nilgai,
black buck, four homed antelope and sloth bear — species winch do
not occur anywhere else outside India.
WTLD LIFE PRESERVATIONS— The revival of interest in the
conservation of wild life in India is a part of general renaissance which
has transformed the country since Independence. In the past, spas-
modic efforts were made to preserve the wild life such as, the short-
lived 1934 All-India Conference for the preservation of Wild Life etc.
But the real attempt in this line has been the formation of Indian
Board of Wild Life at Mysore in 1952. This Wild Life Board has pin-
pointed the need to preser\'e completely certain vanishing species. It
•has urged the States to create wild life board of their own and sanc-
tuaries and national parks and to introduce new methods and to im-
prove existing legislation. It has imposed export restrictions on
certain animals and birds, it has endeavoured to find an alternative
home for the Indian lion which is the nation’s emblem. It has sug-
gested that wild life week be celebrated in the first week of October
each year. But it is to be remembered that the work of the Board is
purely advisory and the States which control wild life along with
forests are free to accept or reject such advice.
Wild life protection is provided for throughout India in the reserv-
ed forests under the sporting rules of the State forest departments
and generally through the implementation of the Arms Act and in
some States, the provisions of special acts for the protection of
animals and birds. Some States not content with the protection
afforded under these various types of legislation has created, like
Bombay and Hyderabad, Wild Life Department.
Sanctuaries and National Parks are being created though very
slowly for the protection of the vanishing animals of India.
WILD LIFE IN INDIA
289
VANISHING ANIMALS — ^The animals which are gradually
vanishing from Indian forests are lions, rhinos, Nilgiri langur, lion-
taUed monkey, Indian wild ass, Kashmiri stag, musk deer, brown
antlered deer, pigmy hog, clouded and snow leopards and the like.
VARIETIES & DESCRIPTION OF ANIMALS
(a) Himalayan Species — (1) Sheep — shapu of Ladakh, Bhoral ;
(2) Goat — Asiatic Ibex, markhor, Himalayan tahr, serow, goral,
takin ; (3) Deer — ^Kashmir stag, musk deer ; (4) Bears — ^Hima-
layan brown bear, Himalayan black bear ; (6) Carnivora — snow
leopard, clouded leopard.
(b) Tibetan Species — (1) Yak, Tibetan wild ass, Tibetan ante-
lope, Tibetan gazelle. Great Tibetan sheep.
(c) Indo-Gangetic Plain and the Deccan — (1) General — Indian
rhinoceros, Indian elephant, (b) Deer — Sambhar, spotted deer or
chital, hog deer, swamp deer, barking deer, mouse deer ; (3) Ante-
lopes — ^Nilgiri, black buck, Indian gazelle, four-homed antelope ;
(4) Bovines — ^Indian wild buffalo, gour or Indian bison (B) Bears —
sloth bear, malayan bear ; (6) Carnivora — Asiatic lion, tiger, panther,
hunting leopard or cheetah ; (7) Hyaena — striped hyaena ; (8) Dog
— Indian wild dog ; (9) Goats — Nilgiri tahr.
Description of Animals — Indian rhinoceros is probably the
largest of living rhinoceroses. It may reach 6 ft. at the shoulder
with girth behind the shoulder of 11 ft. or more. This creature
is in fair number in the Chitawan forests of the Nepal Terai of the
Gandak river and it is also found in Bengal and Assam. Assam’s
rhinos are concentrated in the Kaziranga Sanctuary in Sibsagur dis-
trict. The population of rhinos in this sanctuary is roughly estima-
ted to be 250 to 300. Bengal rhinos are found in the Jalpaiguri district.
Elephants are at present found in the forests of the Western Ghats,
in the forests of Mysore, parts of the districts of Coimbatore, Nilgpri
and Madura and Palni hills (South India), occasionally in the eastern
parts of Visakhapatnam and in considerable number in the Orissa
State, east of Mahanadi river. They also occur in the Terai of U.P.,
in the forests of Assam and Bengal and in some parts of Orissa,
cast of Sambalpur. Sambar of India is the largest of forest deers
in South-East Asia. Chital or spotted deer is found only in India
and Ceylon and is widely distributed in India. Nilgai or blue bull—
a kind of antelope so named on account of the colour of the fully
matured animal. Black buck is exclusively Indian animal. Indian
buffalo is becoming scarce and can be seen on Mahanadi river in the
north-west comer of Orissa and in Assam. Indian bison is found
in Peninsular India and in Assam. Asiatic lion — ^is now to be met
with only in the Gir Forest of Saurashtra. Tiger is available in
Chanda District (M. P.), Eastern Kumaun, Sunderban forests.
Panther — ^there is but one species of panther in India. Hyaena
occurs freely all over India. Indian loild dog is found from Ladakh,
Tibet down to the plains and the Deccan plateau. Indian gazelle is
found in many parts of India from Indus to the South. Mouse deer
is a tiny creature. It is quite plentiful in some areas of . Central
19
290
HINDUSTAN YEAB-BOOK
India and Madras State. Hog deer is some Trhat pig-like appear-
ance and has hog-like movement. This deer is common in snh-
Himalayan tracts and in Assam. Clouded leopard has dark and rich
colouring. It is found only m the dense evergreen forests of
Sikkim, Bhutan, and Assam. Himalayan hlaeh hear is fairly common
in Kashmir and in other parts of Himalayas and occasionally in the
Terai forests.
PROBLEM OF VtTLD LIFE IN INDIA— DisaSorestanon in
India during last two thousand years have totally changed the
face of many parts of India, Sportsman’s vrhip had butchered vrild
Die and certain rare animals are nearing esrinction. Indiscriminate
cultivation in the interior of forests brings about needless interference
with “nature’s reserves.” The importance of forests, where alone
genuine wild life can be preserved is coming to be realised more and
more. Realising the need of preserving the wild life of the country,
the Government of India set up in April, 1952, an Indian Board of
Wild Life to assist those in this line.
Desperate efforts are being made in India to save the wild life in
India which are fast disappearing. We now find only last surviving
lions in the Gir forest in ^thiawar and Indian rhinoceros in .Assam,
Bengal and Nepal. There are 225 lions and 350 rhinos in India.
There are other wild animals which are dwingling in numbers in all
states. Several of the State Governme nts have set up their State
WDd Life Boards. Game Reserves and WRd lafe Sanctuaries have
been established.
A good amount of planning and scientific attention are necessary
in settSig up parks, reserves and _ sanctuaries. The following pro-
posals have been made by the I n dia n Board of Wild Life — (1) Ser-
ting up sanctuaries, (2) legislation for the protection of wild animals
and birds, (3) appointment of observer for wild lif^ (4) adoption of
stringent measures against destruction of wild life by employing
poisoned weapons, nets, snares and explosives, (5) setting up of per-
manent machinery to keep constant vigil and for management of
wild life throughout the country, (6) creation of buffer belts round
the sanctuaries where the shooting of animals was to be prohibited,
(7) periodical inoculation of domestic cattle in the neighbourhood of
aD national parks and sanctuaries against cattie-horne disease, (8)
prohibition of the e^ort of trophies except under certificate of
ownership, (9) prohibition of nettmg of birds and animals during
close periods and their sale, (10) fixation of annual limits reganfing
export and import of animal for the purpose of zoos, circuses and
scientific institutions, (11) wild life day on the 7th July each year.
BIRD PROTECTION — National Committee for Bird Preserva-
tion has been formed in India in 1952 for the protection of some of
the species of wild life which are now in danger of extinction. There
are in India about 1,500 main species of wild birds. These are again
sub-divided into several smaller snb-^edes. An important factor
contributing to the extinction of certain species was the indiscrimi-
nate killing of rare birds for their feathers. There is urgent neces-
sity of proper care of certain areas in the country which are alr^dv
WILD LIFE IN INDIA
2&1
being used as sanctuaries such as Herona^ at Bharatpur in Eajas-
than and the Flamingo breeding grounds in Cutch.
NATIONAL PARKS AND SANCTUARIES IN INDIA
(National Parks are created and modified only by an Act of
legislature, luhereas a Sanctuary can he declared by Government).
Jammu & Kashmir — Three game sanctuaries in Jammu and three
game sanctuaries in Kashmir.
Punjab — Eleven game sanctuaries.
Pepsu — Game sanctuaries in the District of Kandaghat and all the
other reserve forests.
West Bengal — Wild life sanctuary at Gorumara (Jalpaiguri) measur-
ing 3.33 miles under Jalpaiguri Forest Division situated in Lower
Tandu range, (2) Chapramari sanctuary measuring 3.40 sq, miles
in upper Tandu range. These two sanctuaries are mainly meant
for the preservation of the rapidly vanishing Indian rhinoceros ;
(3) the biggest of Bengal sanctuaries is Jaldapara measuring
about 36 sq. miles about 50 miles away to the east of Gorumara’.
Jaldapara sanctuary is under Coach Bihar Forest Division. The
other two sanctuaries of Bengal are Senchal in Darjeeling and
Lothian Island in 24 Praganas. It is estimated that the present
strength of rhinoceros population in West Bengal, is 60 to 70.
Elephants are found in Gorumara and Chapramari and Jaldapara.
Assam — ^Assam has at present four very attractive game
sancturies and four game reserves which ate meant for the
protection of rare animals of the State. There are 464
sq. miles of such sanctuaries and reserves in the State.
(1) Monas Game Sanctuary, spreads over 105 sq. miles on
the north bank of the . Brahmaputra and is in the Kamrup dis-
trict. The sanctuary contains elephants, buffaloes; bisons, rhino,
bears, tigers, pigs and several kinds of deer including barking
variety. The nearest railway station is Barpeta Itoad from which
there is a cold-weather _ motorable road to the sanctuary
entrance. (2) Sonai-Rupai _ Game Sanctaary, Balipara in the
Darrang district. It contains a few rhinos, elephants, bisons
in addition to other animals. It can be reached from Rangapara
railway station and Tezpur Aerodrome by all-weather motorable
road. (3) Pabha Buffalo sanctuary, 19 sq. miles, is situated in
North Lakhimpur. This is exclusively mfeant for the protection
of the magnificent species of wild buffalo in 'Assam. (4) Kazi-
ranga sanctuary is in Sibsagar . district. . , Bounded by Mikir
Hills in the south and Brahmaputra in the north, it is 166 sq.
miles and is easily accessible from Calcutta by air. A five-room
bunglow has recently been constructed at Kahara near the
entrance of the sanctuary. The population of the rhinos in this
sanctuary is 250 to 300. Other animals include about 300 ele-
phants, 500 wild buffaloes in a number of herds, 4 types of deer
including hog deer and swamp deer, . (5) Orang Game Reserve,
Mangalilai to Tezpur. (6) Reserve, for rhino, Laokhowa game
292
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
reserve. Out of the above, the State is converting soon E^zi-
rang and Monas into two National Parks.
Bihar — ^Hazaribagh National Park.
Madhya Bharat — Shivapuri National Park.
M. P. — (1) Tairoba Game Reserve, North Chanda Division, (2)
Bori Game Reserve, Hosangahad Dn., (3) Sanctuary in Mandla
division, ICanha wild game sanctuary.
Bombay — (1) Kanheri National Park, Kanheri valley, (2)_ Wild Life
Sanctuary & National Park, Kulgi & Vimoli, North Kinara Disk,
(3) Elephant Island.
Madras — Mudumalai Game Sanctuary, Nilgiri District.
Mysore — (1) Venugopala Wild Life Sanctuary, (2) Sanctuary for
birds. Near Seringapatam, (3) Fish Sanctuary, Ramnathpur, (4)
Miniature National Park, Mysore Zoo, (5) Bandipur Game Sanc-
tuary. (6) Nagarhol game Sanctuary at Coorg.
Travancore-Cochin — (1) Periyar Catchment area Sanctuary, (2)
Peermade Game Association Area, (3) A Reserved forest serv-
ing Sanctuary and National Park.
Andhra — ^Wild Life Sanctuary to be opened shortly in Cuddapah and
Chittur districts on a patch of nearly 190 square miles of forest.
Uttar Pradesh — In U.P. the most important and perhaps the largest
in India is the Ramganga National Park covering an area of
125 sq. miles. Besides this important Park, there is the Nando
Devi Sanctuary at an altitude of 14,000 to 16,000 feet surrounded
on all sides by the mighty peaks of the Nanda Devi group. The
Kansani Sanctuary in Dehra Dun division covers 28 miles.
Orissa — ^There are at present four sanctuaries as detailed below — (1)
Debigarh Game Sanctuary was. established prior to 1931. It ex-
tends over an area of about 51. sq. miles. The important \vild
life to be seen here is tiger, leopard, sambar, antelope, bison and
nilgai. (2) Raigoda Game Sanctuary established during 1938-39,
lies 23 miles south of Angul town. It is about 17 sq. miles in
area, (3) Ghandika Game Sancttiary established in 1935, covers an
ai'ea of about 12 sq. miles and is situated about 12 miles towards
west of new capital, Bhubaneswar, (4) Balukhand _ Sanctuary
was established during 1935. (5) A National Park in Simlipal
Hills of Mayurbhanj and other game sanctuaries are to be opened
during 2nd Five-Year Plan.
ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS
IN INDIA
Calcutta
Bombay
Gwalior
Hyderabad
Baroda
Lucknow
Madras
Junagadh
Jaipur
Mysore ’
Ahmedabad
Jodhpur
Trichur .
Nagpur
Bikaner
Trivandrum
Udaipur
Delhi
Poona
Kotah
INDEX NUMBERS ON VARIOUS
SUBJECTS
INDEX NUMBERS OP WHOLESALE PRICES & COST OP LIVING
IN SELECTED COUNTRIES
(Base : 1953=
;100) : P
= Wholesale
Prices :
C=Cost of Living
Australia
Canada
France
India
U. K.
U.
s.
P. C.
P. C.
P. C.
P.
C.
P. G,
P.
c.
1951
86 82
109 98
100 91
112
99
97 89
104
97
1952
97 96
102 101
105 101
98
97
100 97
101
99
1963
100 100
100 100
100 100
100
100
100 100
100
100
1954
98 101
98 101
98 100
98
95
101 102
100
100
1955
102 104
99 101
98 101
90
90
104 106
100 100
(.Report on Currency & Finance, 1955-56) .
CONSUMER PRICE INDEX NUMBERS (Working Class)
(Base : 1949=100)
.B
d
§
O
•o
o
K
Ss
B
is
•§
o
»«•»
"2
c
*5
Q
B
o
v>>
“1
§•
'n
o
o
5
5
ca
<
CQ
S
1951-62
.. 104
108
106
108
104
104
116
116
94
1952-53
.. 104
112
100
107
103
107
116
111
93
1953-54
.. 106
118
99
107
109
111
113
110
94
1954-65
.. 99
117
94
103
104
93
104
101
83
1955-56
.. 96
110
93
100
100
89
104
99
79
(Report on Currency & Finance, 1955-56).
ALL INDIA INDEX NUMBERS OF SECURITY PRICES
Group Indices
.a
CS
Base : IHO-SO
1952- 53
1953- 54
90-1
90-4
101-1
87-3
87-3
94- 0
95- 6
294
HlfTOUSTAN YEAK-BOOK
1954- 55
1955- 56
90-5 100-7 88-4 112-9
90-9 100-8 87-3 121-6
INDEX NUMBERS OE INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION
(Base; 1951=100)
General Index Mining
Food
Textiles
Cotton
Jute
1952 103
105.6
112.4
103.7
102.3
107.6
1953 105.6
104.2
105.7
107.1
109.1
101.1
1954 112.9
107.2
101.7
110.0
110.9
107.3
1955 122.1
111.7
121.4
113.6
111.9
118.9
Q n 2
Si 5
1 o u
it
1
2e>
A S'®
£
o
® V*
to-Ss
2 ®
s
1952
. . 117.9
106.2
100.1
92.8
104.5
1953-
. . 130.0
108.9
94.5
108.9
113.1
1954
. . 141.1
125.5
114.4
115.9
127.0
1955
. . 159.0
134.8
112.6
183.3
131.2
{Monthly Abstract of Statistics, Sept., 1956).
INDEX NUMBERS OF EXPORTS AND BIPORTS
Quantity Index
(Reserre Bank of India series)
Exports Imports
.S w
r* o
'-'.O
03
'5-S.S
e
o
O
t* o
03
sl
ta 05
c
'c
S'®
s. c
o ^
Food,
& Ti
£ S?
V
o
^ e
s s ^
O
rs^
S
o
c*.»
■S’S-
1953-54
.. 98
74
114
99
64
100
1X4
105
122
1954-55
.. 104
82
115
102
72
104
130
114
122
1955-56
.. 102
: 124
117
115
89
95
183
95
91
Price Index
1953-54
.. 107
99
84
94
92
93
98
93
101
1954-55
.. 130
•98
84
100
78
94
101
91
110
1955-56
.. 114
'92
81
93
84
98
98
94
99
*Ratio of Export Price Index to Import Price Index.
INDEX NUMBER ON VARIOUS SUBJECTS
295
INDEX NUMBERS OP WHOLESALE PRICES IN INDIA*
{Annual & Monthly)
(Base : Year endeS August 1939=100)
Indus-
trial
raw
Semi-
Manu-
Average of
Food
mate-
manu-
factured
General
-iveeks
articles rials
factures
articles
Mis.
Index
1951-62
(31)
(18)
(17)
(30)
(4)
(100)
398-6
691-9
374-4
401-6
721-6
434-6
1952-53
357-8
436-9
343-8
371-2
614-1
380-6
1963-54
384-4
467-7
359-2
367-4
686-6
397-6
1954-55
339-8
436-2
360-3
377-3
612-4
377-4
1955-56
313.2
419.7
338.2
372.9
646.4
360.3
{Report on Currency & Finance, 1955-56).
^Figures in brackets
refer to weightage.
INDEX NUMBER OF FOOD
PRICES
(Base : Year ended August
1939=100)
Groups
1953-54
1954-56
1955-56 percentage
(1)
(2)
(3)
change of (3)
‘
over (2)
All commodities
397.5
377.5
360.3
- 4.6
Pood Articles
384.4
339.8
313.2
- 7.8
Industrial raw materials
467.7
436.2
419.7
- 3.8
Semi-Manufactures
359.2
350.3
338.2
- 3.6
Manufactures
367.4
377.4
372.9
.
— 1.2
Miscellaneous
686.6
612.4
646.4
-
-10.8
{Report on Currency & Finance, 1955-56).
INDEX NUMBERS OF INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION
1951=100
1952
1954
1956
1962
1954
1965
General Index 103.6
112.9
122.1
Jute
Coal
105.6
107.2
111.4
textiles
107.6
107.3
118.9
Iron ore
106.3
107.8
116.7
Footwear
Sugar
134.0
97.4
143.0
(leather)
90.6
93.3
97.1
Tea
98.6
102.6
106.2
Paper
104.2
117.7
140.2
Salt
103.3
99.4
109.0
Footwear
Vegetable oil
(rubber)
98.9
136.4
151.4
products
110.7
133.9
161.3
Iron &
Cigarettes
93.8
92.4
106.4
Steel
102.2
113.2
113.3
Cotton
Non-ferrous
textiles
102.3
110.9
111.9
metal
80.7
126.6
123.7
•Ministry of Commerce & Industry {Reserve Bank Bulletin Nov., 1956),
296 HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Industrial Profits
(1939=100)
55
-j
,
5;
S
s
§,
g
6
O
O
1950
246.6
456.9
356.6
271.2
262.4
479.0
134.2
209JI
333.4
1951
310.5
679.1
551.1
103.9
420.8
60A1
157.7
178.4
419.7
1952
190.6
183.4
262.8
-88.8
409.1
566.8
162.6
220.4
293.4
1953
261.2
326.2
379.4
391.4
419.8
512.7
179.4
145.5
279.0
1954
314.2
356.4
387.2
712.3
334.9
666.1
222.9
153.0
341.4
{Monthly
Abstract of Statistics, Sept.
1956)
1.
ECONOMIC INDICATORS OF INDLA
1. Production & Prices
1953
1954
1955
(Index numbers 1953=100)
Industrial Production
100
108
119
Wholesale Prices — General
100
98
90
Share Prices — Industrial
100
119
131
Cost of Living
100
95
90
2. Money, Banking & Capital 3Iarkets
National Income . . 104.90
99.10
Money supply — end of year
17.09
18.32
20.47
(i_) Currency do
11.66
12.25
13E6
(ii) Deposit money do
5.43
6.08
6.61
Time deposits do
3.59
3.95
4.46
Govt, deposits do
1.16
0.60
0.39
Domestic loans & Investments of
Commercial Banks
8.77
9.63
10.86
Foreign Assets of Central Banks
7.63
7.71
7.75
Discount rate of Central Banks (p.c.) 3.50
3.50
3.50
Treasury Bill Rate (p.c.)
2.42
2.57
2.52
Long-term Govt, bond yield (p.c.)
3.64
3.65
3.72
3. Government Finances
Revenue
4J2
4.6
5.0
Expenditure
4.1
4.2
4.9
Public Debt
26.4
29.8
32.9
4. Trade CVaiae)
Exports if.o.b.)
5,)1
5,94
5,97
Imports (c.i.f.)
5,72
—0.41
6,56
6,79
Net Balance of Trade
-0.63
—0.82
{Report on
Cnrrency & Finance,
1955-56).
SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS IN
INDIA
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IN INDIA— India has a long tradi-
tion of scientific research. It took pride of place in ancient India. Old
Sanskrit texts bear witness to the high quality of research in medi-
cine, astronomy and mathematics. But science was in eclipse in the
middle ages and India began to lose her pre-eminence among the na-
tions of the world. Science received little encouragement under Bri-
tish rule in India. In consequence, the country has remained backward
in many respects. Official patronage was denied to science but it
found devotees among the people. Proposals for industrial research
were shelved on some pretext or other. Circumstances compelled
the British to reverse their policy. With the advent of World War,
India became the supply base for the Allied forces in the Middle and
Far East. So Government of India sought the aid of science to make
the most of the resources available within the country. Accordingly
The Board of Scientific and Industrial Research was set up in 1940.
With the experience gained in the working of the Board, the Cotmcil
of Scientific and Industrial Research came into being in April 1942.
The activities of the Council is financed mainly by the Central Govern-
ment. With the advent of independence on August 15, 1947, a
separate portfolio was created for scientific research under the direct
charge of the Prime Minister Nehru. This was followed by the
creation of the Department of Scientific Research on June 1, 1948 fol-
lowed by the institution of a Ministry of Natural Resources and
Scientific Research in 1951.
Scientific and technological research in India is at present being
carried out in —
1. 33 Universities.
2. Institutes like Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Bose
Research Institute, Calcutta, Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeo-Botany,
etc., maintained by non-official organisations with liberal financial
support from Government.
3. 14 National Laboratoiies of Council of Scientific and Indus-
trial Research.
4. Establishments of the Government of India like Atomic Energy
Commission, Surveys of Botany, Zoology, and Geology, Indian Bureau
of Llines, Survey of India, National Atlas of India Enterprise, Indian
Meteorological Department and the Central Statistical Organisation.
5. A few specialised research institutes maintained by private in-
dustries in the field of cotton, textiles, jute, silk and art silk.
ROLE OF INDIAN SCIENTISTS — The modern scientific re-
search in India started only at the beginning of the century through
the pioneering work of Sir P. C. Roy and Sir J. C. Bose. This was
298
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
followed later by the brilliant investigations of Sir C. V. Eaman,
M. N. Saha, Birbal Sahni, S. N. Bose and Sir J. C. Ghosh. _
India can boast of Nobel Prize winner in Physics in Sir C. "V.
Raman, the famous discover of “Raman effect”-, significant work
has been done by Sir C. V. Raman and his collaborators at Bangalore
on the dynamics of crystals like diamond, rock salt and quartz.
Work on optics has recently been initiated in the newly CTeated
Raman Research Institute at Bangalore, of which he is the director.
Other famous scientists are Sir J. G. Bose who won renown by his
work in plant physiology, S, Ramanujam, the mathematical prodigy
of India whose early death ended a career of great promise. Dr. M.
N. Saha for thermal ionization and radiation, late Dr. Birbal Sahni,
an authority in paleobotany, who carried interesting work on the
age of salt ranges of the Punjab. Dr. K. S. Krishnan, famous for
his work on magnetism, H. J. Bhaba whose work on the cascade
theory and ionisation of showers has won for him international
reputation, P. C. Mahalanobis of statistics fame, late Sir P. C. Roy
for mercurious nitrate, late Dr. S. S. Bhatnagar, well-kno'vra
for his work on mercury nitrates, S. N. Bose of Bose-Einstein
statistics fame, T. S. Venkataraman, the sugarcane expert, Sir J. C.
Ghose, J. N. Jlukherjee on coUoid chemistry and soil research. Dr.
Ghaniusekharis contribution to astronomy and astrophysics, K-
Venkataraman’s researches on dyestafiTs, D. M. Bose famed for
research work in magnetism and Dr. N. R. Dhar for scientific
researches.
In the field of medical science, India was the first country to dis-
cover that micro-organisms which are responsible for malaria and
transmitted by mosquitoes. The diagnosis, prevention and cure of
kala-azar have been made possible by the work of the late Dr. U. N.
Brahmachari ; Dr. R, N. Chopra has investigated the cictine principle
of Indian medicinal plants and their pharmacolcgical action.
INDIA’S INTERNATIONAL CONTACTS IN SCIENCE— India
is a member of the International Council of Scientific Unions and of
eleven individual Scientific Unions. The works of the Indian scientists
have been recognised and many of them have been appointed to vari-
ous organisations under the International Scientific Unions. India’s
views on the various scientific bodies are thus fully represented. Indi-
an scientific delegation are regularly sent to a number of International
Conferences, through which Indian scientists receive regular infor-
mation from abroad on the latest developments in specialized sub-
jects. Several International Conferences are also being held in India
at regular intervals.
The Indian Scientific Liaison Officer with the Indian High
Commissioner , in . London obtains information from Britain and
European countries on technical subjects required by our research
laboratories, universities and scientific institutions. In most cases,
this kind of information can not be, obtained through the ordinary
channels. The Scientific Liaison Office helps the movement of scien-
rists within the Commonwealth and provides adequate facilities for
Indian scientists and others visiting U.K. and European countries.
SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS IN INDIA
299
MINISTRY OP NATURAL RESOURCES AND SCIENTIFIC
RESEARCH — On June 1, 1948 a separate Department of Scientific
and Industrial Research was set lip under the direct control of the
Prime Minister. The functions of this department include the co-ordi-
nation of the scientific activities of other ministries, advice to Govern-
ment Departments, maintenance of scientific liaison with other coun-
tries and institutes, research scholarships in applied scientific sub-
jects, carrying out of all work in connection with the International
Council of Scientific Unions and International Scientific Com-
missions. On the 1st February, 1951 the Ministry of Natural Re-
sources and Scientific Research was created and the former Depart-
ment of Scientific and Industrial Research became a part of this new
Ministry. This Ministry is concerned with scientific and industrial
research, undertakes scientific surveys and deals with mining enter-
prises. Atomic Research is also one of its responsibilities. The Coun-
cil of Scientific and Industrial Research comes under this Ministry
for administrative purposes but still retains its separate entity.
Department of Atomic Energy — The work of the atomic energy
was so long under the charge of the Ministry of Natural Resources,
but from 1954 Government of India created a separate Department
of Atomic Energy under the direct charge of the Prime Minister.
This department is located at Bombay and has taken over from the
Ministry of Natural Resources and Scientific Research all business
connected with atomic energy.
Oil & Natural Gas Directorate — The latest Industrial Policy
Resolution of the Government of India, April 30, 1956 have decided
that the future development of mineral oil should be the responsibi-
lity of the State. An organisation called “Oil and Natural Gas Di-
rectorate” has already been set up under the Ministry of Natural Re-
sources and Scientific Research. This is soon to be reconstituted as
an Oil and Natural Gas Commission.
COUNCIL OF SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH—
At the time of the Second World War, the British Government
was compelled to accelerate the scientific research in India, because
at that time maximum utilization of resources available in India
became an absolute necessity. India at that time was the principal
supply base of the Allies in the East. So in 1940 the Government
of India established a Board of Scientific Research which was con-
verted into the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. Plan-
ning and co-ordination were made possible in an increasing
degree by the establishment of the Council of Scientific and Indus-
trial Research. In 1942 the Council of Scientific and Industrial Re-
search Was constituted as an autonomous body with the object of
establishing, maintaining and managing laboratories and institutions
devoted to scientific and industrial research. In addition to its other
functions, it awards research studentships and fellowships and utilizes
the results of research for the development' of industries. It also
publishes scientific papers and journals to disseminate information
regarding scientific and industrial matters. '
The Council is administered by a governing body with the Prime
Minister for its President and the Minister for Natural Resources and
300
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Scientific Research as Vice-President. Non-officials representing
science, business and industry as well as the representatives of the
Minist^ of Finance is included in the Governing Body. In technical
matters, the Governing Body is advised by a Board of Scientific and
Industrial Research consisting of 19 members. The Government De-
partments interested in the industrial research are also represented.
The Board advises the Government on (a) proposals for the
initiation of research concerning specific problems, (b) proposal from
scientific institutions, including universities for the study of problems
relating to particular trades and industries and (c) proposals for the
study and survey of indigenous resources as an essential preliminary
to systematic investigations.
Following are some of the important works of the Council of
Industrial and Scientific Research -. —
1. It helps in the formation of industrial research associations.
2. It encourages fundamental and applied research in the uni-
versities and other research institutions through grants-in-aid.
3. Biological Research Committee has been set up by the Council
for research in biology.
4. Experiments to produce artificial rain has been carried out in
India under the auspices of the Council.
5. An Indian National Committee has been constituted under
the auspices of the Council to organise investigations in connection
with the International Geophysical year 1957-58.
6. Radio Research Committee of the Council is functioning as
the National Committee in India for the International Scientific Radio
Union.
7. Vigyan Mandirs — For the revival of popular interest in
science which will widen the base of research in the country is the
plan to spread a net work of rural scientific laboratories known as
Vigyan hlandirs. Analysis of the soil and water, dissemination of
scientific information, nature of human diseases, plant diseases, soil
defect, water defect, will be their main activities. These centres will
also have a pathological laboratory to help the public health autho-
rities in fighting diseases. The first Vigyan Mandir was opened by
the Prime Minister on August IG, 1953 near the village Kopasera
near Delhi and the second, called Kidwai Vigyan Mandir was started
at Masauli on Dec. 12, 1954 and a third was started at Kalupapatti
in Madras. These rural scientific centres will be associated with
Community Projects Administration and will be located in Commu-
nity Project areas.
8. Scientific Publications — Dissemination of scientific infor-
mation is one of the important functions of the Council of Scien-
tific and Industrial Research. An important development in the field
of ■ scientific research is the publication of Wealth of India as the
dictionary of economic products and industrial resources of India. A
comprehensive National Register of Scientific and Technical Per-
sonnel has been compiled by the Council. Information concerning
over 22,000 technicians and scientists has already been published
in this book.
The Council also brings out a monthly publication Journal of
SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS IN INDIA
301
Scientific and Industrial Research from 1942. The joumal publishes
research papers, reviews, scientific and technical articles, etc. The
Council also publishes Vigyan Pragati in Hindi.
An Indian Science News-letter containing current news on scien-
tific and technical work in India is issued fortnightly.
Funds have been provided for the translation into English of a
Bharatiya Jyotish Shastra by the late Shankar Balkrishna Dixit
which is a source box of ancient and mediaeval Indian astronomy.
The publications relating to the activities of the 23 research
committees under the Council of Scientific & Agricultural Research
are brought out from time to time in the form of reports, mono-
graphs and bulletins.
FIVE-YEAR PLANS — under the first Five-Year Plan, a sum
of Rs. 5 crores was spent in building and equiping national
laboratories. The total expenditure on the activities of the Council
of Scientific and Industrial Research, during the period amounted to
more than 7 crores. A distinctive achievement of the 1st Five-Year
Plan was the setting up of a chain of national research laboratories,
research institutions such as electronics at PUani and for salt
at Bhavnagar, a national botanical garden in Lucknow. In addi-
tion to research department in 33 universities, there are 88 research
institutions and research centres and 54 associations in the field of
technological research.
Snd Five-Year Plan — provides for an outlay of Rs. 20 crores for
the development programme of the Council of Scientific and Indus-
trial Research. In addition, the University Grants Commission is
expected to provide a sum of Rs. 17 crores to the universities for
building up research facilities and for higher technological education.
NATIONAL LABORATORIES — ^The establishment of a chain of
national laboratories ranks as one of the major achievements of In-
dia since Independence. These National Laboratories seek to
supplement the work of other research institutions of the country.
The description of these laboratories are given here —
1. National Physical Laboratory, Ncio Delhi — It has nine
divisions dealing with weights and measures, applied mechanics,
heat and power, optics, electricity, electronics, acoustics, _ analytical
chemistry and industrial physics. It has special laboratories for the
study of semiconductors, ultrasonics, luminescence, low tempera-
tures, etc. One main line of research is the practical utilization of
solar energy which a country like India has great prospects. It was
opened on January 21, 1950,
2. National Chemical Laboratory, Poona — ^Tlie laboratory'
was opened in 1950 and has eight main divisions devoted to in-
organic chemistry, physical chemistry, chemistry of high polymers,
organic chemistry, bio-chemisti-y, chemical engineering etc. The
lalwratory has been working on the industrial utilisation of the
natural resources of the country, notably on phosphates, ilmenites
and monazites and containing thorium and rare earths.
3. National Metallurgical Laboratory, Jamshedpur — ^was
opened on 2Gth November, 1950. Besides metallurgical research, it
302
lUNDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
undertakes xesearch on ores, minerals and refractories as applied to
metallurgy. A .noteworthy feature is the laboratory’s collaboration
with the Tatas. '
■ 4. ■ Central Fuel Research histitute, Digivadih, Dhanoad —
was opened on April 22, 1950. The institute conducts research on
major problems concerning fuel — ^solid, liquid and gaseous — and
operates a physical and chemical survey of Indian coals, the object
being to provide a reliable assessment of the quality and quantity of
the various coal resources of the country in order to ensure that
they are utilised to the best advantage. In addition to problems of
fundamental and applied research, sampling and analysis of coal will
be undertaken and phot-plants are to be developed for various
processes.
5. Central Glass and Ceramic Research Institute, Calcutta —
was opened on 25th August, 1950. The Institute conducts^ funda-
mental research bearing on different branches of glass ceramics. Its
other fimctions will be testing and standardization, technical assist-
ance to the glass and ceramic industry ; dissemination of information
and training of technologists for special work. It has carried out
research on coloured glass, sintered glass and foam glass. A survey
of glass sands has been conducted in the States and more than 120
samples have been analysed and graded. ' " .
6. Central Road Research Institute, Nero Delhi — was opened
on July 16, 1952. It includes the following works — study of the
technique of construction and maintenance of roads with due regard
to the use of indigenous materials, survey of Indian soils with the
object of evolving chief rural roads, investigation of problems of
road safety, development of an improved type of rural vehicle which
would be less destructive to rural roads.
7. Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore City
— It was opened on 21st October, 1950. The Institute studies the
storage, conservation and processing of foodsriiffs, refrigeration, new
sources of food materials, and the production of food concentration,
ritamins and dietetic products. An important branch of the insti-
tute’s work is the economics of food production, also technical propa-
ganda and information.
8. Central Drug Research Institute, ‘Chattar Mansil,’
Lucknorc — ^was opened on Februri^ 17, 1951. This Research Insti-
tute has been set up with five main divisions with chemistry, botany,
pharmacology, biochemistry and microbiology and clinical science.
The Institute is conducting research on drugs which has been used
by indigenous systems of medicine for hundreds of years. Medicinal
plants and herbs are also being tested. The Institute will also work
on synthetic drugs and anti-biotics.
9. Central Leather Research Institute, Madras — was opened
m January 16, 1953. Hides and skins constitute an important item
in Indian export trade. To provide proper facilities for research, a
fullfledged Central Leather Research Institute has been set up in
Madras. Its various sections vrill deal with leather testing, chemis-
try, bacteriology, microscopy and physics. The Institute will have
a model tannery, a pilot plant and a workshop. Work here is devo-
SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS IN INDIA
303
ted to the improvement and modernization of the leather industry in
this country.
10. Central Electro-Chemical Research Institute, Karaikudi
(Madras) — ^was opened in January 15, 1953. Several ‘key" chemical
industries depend on electro-chemical processes. In fact, some
chemicals can not be manufactured economically by other means.
This Central Research Institute will thus help the development of
the chemical industry. The Institute will have two main divisions —
electrolytic and electrothermic. The main object is to foster new
chemical industries, to expand the existing ones and also to improve
their efficiency.
11. Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee — ^was opened
on April 13, 1953. The institute deals with four principal groups of
problems, namely (i) building material, (ii) methods of construction,
(iii) performance of buildings and Uv) survey and information.
This completes the eleven laboratories first conceived by the Govern-
ment.
12. Central Salt Research Institute, Bkavnagar — ^was opened
on the 10th April, 1954 by Jawaharlal Nehru.- The main func-
tion of the Institute is to work out methods for improving the
quality and to increase salt production for domestic as well as indus-
trial uses. The sources of salt, such as sea and lake brines, contain,
besides salt, other important chemicals. It is the object of the
Institute to conduct research on the economic recovery of the by-pro-
ducts as such or to utilize them for the manufacture of other industri-
ally useful chemicals. Attached to this Institute there is a Central
Model Salt Farm and Field Experimental Station.
13. Central Electronic Engineering Institute, Pilani, Raj-
asthan — was opened in Rajasthan in 1954. The Govt, of India has
allocated a Rs. 25-lakh gprant for the First Five-Year Plan period.
Seth G. D. Birla has donated Rs. 21 lakhs and a recurring annual
grant of Rs. 50,000. The object of the Institute is to undertake
research and development on aU aspects of electronic engineering.
Special attention is devoted to the utilization of indigenous raw
materials for the manufacture of components, the development and
use of electronic circuits for industry, the building of standard elec-
tronic instruments, for test purposes, the electronotic tools for
medical profession, such as electro-cardiographs. It will also con-
duct investigations on radio techniques for civilian uses and on the
application of electronotics in metallurgy.
14. National Botanical Gardens, Lnicknow — Sikandar Bagh of
Lucknow has been taken over by the Council of Scientific and Indus-
trial Research for the establishment of the National Botanical
Gardens. So far, a nucleus herbarium and horticulture laboratory
has been set up. Research work on various horticultural problems
is being done and more than 500 species of medicinal plants have been
selected for cultivation in nursery plots.
Engineering Research — ^With a view to initiating and co-ordina-
ting research on different engineering subjects, the Board of Engi-
neering Research was inaugurated in 1950. The Board is assisted
by .five expert committees — (1) Civil Engineering Committee, (2)
304
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Blechanical Engineering Committee, (3) Electrical and Radio Engi-
neering Committee, (4) Hydraulics Committee and (5) Aeronautical
Engineering Committee.
3Iedical Research — ^Medical Research is conducted chiefly under
the auspices of the Indian Council of Medical Research, New DeRii.
This Council also grants research fellowships. There is a Scientific
Advisory Board which deals with technical questions, etc. Indian
Research Ftind Association was brought into being with the object
of sponsoring research in subjects relating to medicine and public
health. Among the specialised institutes catering to research and
public health, the following may be mentioned ; —
(1) Central Research Institute, Kasauli ; (2) School of Tropical
Sledicine, Calcutta ; (3) Haffkine Institute, Bombay ; (4) King Ins-
titute, Guindy, Madras ; (5) All-India Institute of Hygiene and
Public Health, Calcutta ; (6) Malaria Institute, Delhi ; (7) Nutrition
Research Institute, Coonoor ; (8) Pasteur Institutes at Kasauli,
Shillong and Coonoor.
Agricultural Research — ^It had its beginning in 1929 with the
starting of Indian Council of Agrieidtnral Research. The primary
function of the Council is to promote, guide and co-ordinate agri-
cultural including veterinary research. The Council’s work has been
enlarged to include the work coimected with the application of the
results of research to field practice and to undertake, aid, promote
and co-ordinate agncultaral and animal husbandry education,
research and its application in practice, development and marketing
by all means calculated to increase scientific Imowledge of the sub-
jects and to secure its adoption in every day practice.
The Council is divided into two parts — governing body which
examines all proposals in connection with the scientific subjects.
Government contribute financial grants every year and a cess of
5 p.c. ad valorem is levied under the Agricultural Produce Cess Act
of 1940 to provide funds for agricultural research programme.
The following are the main agricultural Institutes of India —
(1) Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun; (2) Indian Agricultural
Research Institute, Delhi ; (3) Indian Veterinary Research Institute,
Mnkteswar and Izzatnagar ; (4) Indian Dairy Research Institute,
Bangalore; (5) Sugar Research Institute, Coimbatore; (6) Central
Rice Research Station, Cuttack ; (7) Cotton Technological Research
Laboratory, Matunga, Bombay and its sub-station at Indore ; (8)
Central Jute Technological Research Laboratory, Calcutta ; (9) Jute
Agricultural Research Institute, Hooghly ; (10) Indian Lao Research
Institute, Ranchi ; (11) Central Tobacco Research Institute, Raja-
mundry ; (12) Bidi Tobacco Research Station, Anand ; (13) Central
Inland Fisheries Research Station, Barrackpur ; (14 ) Central Marine
Research Station, Madras ; (15) Deep Sea Fishing Research Station,
Bombay ; (16) Central Coconut Research Station, Kayamkulain,
Travancore ; (17) Central Potato Research Institute, Patna ; (18)
Central Vegetable Breeding Station, Kulu, Punjab ; (19) Phuit
Resrarch Institute, Sabonr, Bhagalpnr ; (20) Sugarcane Research.
Station, Poona ; (21) Sugarcane Research Station, Shahjehanpur.
SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS IN INDIA
305 -
Statistical Research — An important agency of the scientific
research is the Indian Statistical Research Institute of Calcutta ori-
ginally founded as a small statistical laboratory. The Institute has
developed into a big research centre with roughly 800 scientific and
auxiliary workers. It maintains small branches and agencies in other
cities and runs international courses in statistics for undergraduate
and graduate students from south-east Asian countries.
Central Statistical Organisation of the Government of India has
carried out valuable national sample surveys of manufacturing indus-
tries, land holdings, crops, employment & unemployment and also
research on national income statistics.
Meteorological Research — ^Indian Meteorological Department
maintains research stations at Delhi and Poona and sub-stations all
over the country for upper air investigations.
National Research Development Corporation of India — ^has been
established in December 1953. The Corporation will bridge the gap
between research and its development to the production stage by
financing practical trials of promising researches at existing factories
or by installation of pilot or prototype plants. Its scope covers inven-
tions whether patentable or otherwise of national laboratories, other
State-sponsored research institutions, universities and private indivi-
duals also where public interest so demands. Private enterprise is
not always ready to take the risk of utilising new techniques and
processes invented in the National Laboratories and other research
institutions. For evaluating the commercial feasibility of new in-
ventions and processes, the Government of India has established this
Research Corporation. The Corporation is constituted as a State-
owned private company under the provisions of the Indian
Companies Act.
Indian National Scientific Documentation Centre — This centre
provides documentation services to the national laboratories, scienti-
fic institutions, universities and industrial concerns for (1) the
receipt of all scientific periodicals, (2) for supply of photostats and
translation of articles for research workers, (3) for preparation and
maintenance of an index of all scientific journals received, (4) for
answering questions on scientific problems, (5) for supplying to the
other parts of the world information about scientific work done in
India and neighbouring countries. This Centre is the national
repository for reports of the scientific work carried out in this coun-
try and is located at the National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi.
Research Associations by Industries — ^It is a very good sign that
industries should organise research independently. So the Council
is promoting research on a co-operative basis and research associa-
tions are being set up — (1) The Silk and Art Silk Mills Association
collected Rs. 35 lakhs to establish a research institute for the in-
dustry. (2) The textile industry of Ahmedabad has also formed •
a research association and earmarked Rs. 62 lakhs for establishing
a research institute. (3) South Indian Textile Research Associa-
tion is planning a textile research laboratory at Coimbatore. (4)
Ahmedabad Textile Industry’s Research Association is sustained by
the co-operative effort of the industry and the Government of India.
20
306 HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
(5) Indian Central Cotton Technological Lahorato^ at Bombay is
the only laboratory of its land in India and is being conducted by
the Indian Central Cotton Committee.
Nuclear Research — ^India has taken in earnest the Nuclear
Research. The first in the field is the Tata Institute of. Funda-
mental Research in Bombay established in 1954. In addition to the
training of students, it undertakes research in nuclear physics.
Another research institute has been established in Calcutta in 1950
known as Institute of Nuclear Physics.
Atomic Research — ^A field of research in which India has made
significant strides and ranks among the first half dozen nations is
the nuclear science. A swimming pool reactor, designed and built by
the personnel of the Atomic Energy Department at Trombay
went into operation on August 4, 1956. The reactor will nro-
duce isotopes for biological, medical and industrial research. This
swimming pool type reactor has cost between Rs. 25 lakhs to 30 lakhs.
The energy produced by this reactor would be equwalent to 1,000
kilowatts. An agreement has been signed with Canada under Colombo
Plan for the construction of a high-power NRX reactor. The Cana-
dian reactor would cost about Rs. 7 crores and would produce
30,000 k.w. This Canadian reactor is expected to be ready in
1958. The Atomic Ener^- Commission is handling projects for heavy
water production in conjunction with fertilizers at Nangal and at
other suitable places and has carried out geophysical surveys and
launched upon drilling, mining and extraction activities in regard to
thorium and uranium. Every advanced country now is using atomic
energy for the development of defence and industry. India is well-
endowed with atomic minerals. In order to use the atomic energy,
a Board of Research in Atomic Energy was set up in June 1947.
The Board was set up to develop the use of atomic energy for peace-
ful purposes.
Department of Atomic Energy vras created by the Government
of India in 1954 under the direct control of the Prime Minister
to take charge of development work. This Department is located in
Bombay.
An Atomic Energy Establishment has been set up. An area
of about 1,10 acres is under acquisition in Trombay, 13 miles off
Bombay. The Establishment at Trombay will consist three main-
groups — ^the Physics, the Chemistry and the Engineering groups. A
unit of hledical & Health Section will also be located at the Estab-
lishment. The Metallurgy Division was set up in 1955 for the produc-
tion of uranium and thorium metals, powder, alloj’s etc. and on design-
ing equipments.
The Commission has been responsible for the setting up of the
Indian Rare Earths Ltd-, in Kerala. This enterprise is owned
, jointly by the Governments of India and Kerala. The factory
was set up at Alwaye in 1952 for producing rare earth pro-
ducts and trisodium _ phosphate out of monazite sands and the’
thorium cake, A pilot plant for the extraction of uranium
ore from copper tailings of the Indian Copper Corporation has been
set up at Ghatsila. It is proposed to set up a pUot plant for the
INDIAN MINERALS
307
production of tintanium sponge metal from rutile and ilmenite sands
available in India.
Heavy water is an essential material for the comprehensive
atomic energy programme. It has now been decided that one of the
new fertilizer factories to be set-up at Nangal in Punjab should be
•closely associated with the production of heavy water.
Survey of India — is a specialised organisation which produces
up-to-date maps of various kinds. It has its own printing presses
at Dehra Dun and Calcutta where maps, both for civil administration
and for defence serrvices are prepared. Officers of the Department
are trained at the Survey Training School at Dehra Dun. In 1951
Survey Priorities Committee has drawn up programme of expansion
which has been approved by the Planning Commission.
Anthropology in India — India was one of the earliest countries
to start an ethnographical sui'vey which it did in the year 1905
during the time of Lord Curzon. But the work was prematurely
•closed down. A Department of Anthropology was started in the
■Calcutta University in 1921. In 1946 a scheme for the reorganisa-
tion of anthropological research was prepared by Dr. B. S. Guha
and Dr. Seymour Sewell at the invitation of the Government of
India and at the end of that year the nucleus of the Anthropological
Survey of India was formed. In 1946 the Survey was definitely
■established with a five-year programme. It is now located at the
Indian Museum, Calcutta. The Anthropology Department has well-
equipped laboratories both for physical and cultural research.
Besides these, it has a big Ethnographical Museum and a well-
stocked library of representative titles and research papers for
reference. For convenience of work and due to the vastness of the
•country, the Anthropology Department has opened some sub-stations,
■one in the Andamans, another at Shillong and another centre at
Nagpur.
The anthropological department of the Delhi University started
functioning from August 1947. Lucknow University started the
Department of Anthropology in 1950. During 1953 and 1954 several
other universities of India, such as Saugar, Bihar, Baroda and
•Gauhati have introduced this subject in their curricula for teaching
and research.
LEARNED SOCIETIES AND RESEARCH INSTITUTES
— Besides the research institutes and laboratories founded in the past
six years, India has a number of older scientific and research organi-
sations originally established in connection with universities
or by private donation, but now considerably enlarged and
mainly financed by grants from the Central or State Govern-
ments. The earliest research society established in India is
the Royal Asiatic Soccity of Bengal in the year 1784.
Survey of India was established in 1800, Geological
Survey in 1851, Botanical Survey in 1889 and the Zoological SuTmey
in 1916. Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science was
established in Calcutta in the year 1876. There are many learned
Scientific Societies scattered throughout the country. These institu-
■tions try to further knowledge in their respective spheres. Indian
308
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
Science Congress Association, started in 1914, provides _ a common
forum for the scientists of the country. Under its auspices, Indian
and foreign scientists meet every year to discuss common problerns
and exchange ideas. National Institute of Sciences established _ in
1935 has been recognised by the Government as the premier scientific
organisation engaged in co-ordination between scientific academies,
societies, institutions and Government scientific department and
services. Other learned societies in various parts of India are — (1)
Agricultural and Horticultural Society of India, Calcutta, (2) Na-
tional Institute of Sciences of India, Delhi, (3) Indian Research
Fund Association, (4) National Academy of Sciences, Allahabad,
(5) Indian Academy of Sciences, Bangalore, (6) Mining and
Geological Survey of India, (7) Mining and Metallurgical Society,
(8) Indian Society of Social Sciences, (9) Entomological Society of
India, (10) Horticultural Society of India, (11) Indian Dairy Asso-
ciation, Bangalore, (12) Birbal Sahni Institute of Palseobotany,
Lucknow, (13) Central Research Institute, Kasauli, (14) Central
Road Research Institute, Okhla, New Delhi, (15) Central Water and
Power Station, Poona, (16) Drug Research Laboratory, Jammu,
(17) Hydraulic Research Laboratories, Poona, (18) Indian Associa-
tion for the Cultivation of Science, Calcutta, (19) Indian Central
Cotton Committee Technological Laboratory, Bombay, (20) Indian
Tea Association Research Institute, Tookla, Assam, (21) Ionos-
pheric Research Station, Haringhatta, Calcutta, (22) Oil Techno-
logical Institute, Anantapur, Madras, (23) Bose Research Insti-
tute, Calcutta, (24) Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Institute,
Bombay, (25) Engineers’ Association of India, Calcutta.
INDIAN MINERALS
Nearly a hundred ores and minerals occur in India and are being
produced in quantities large and small, though the production
of only about fifteen to twenty of them is common knowledge.
There are some minerals being extracted of which the general public
has not even heard. Bentonite, Fuller’s earth, felspar, rutile, sillima-
nite, steatite and vermiculite are examples of such obscure mineral
assets. India’s present place in the world of mineral producing
countries rests very largely on her position as the second largest pro-
ducer of manganese and of ilmenite, on her reserves and quality of
mica and, to a lesser extent, on her reserves of mangnetite and bauxite.
The supply of these minerals are more than sufficient, now and in the
foreseeable future, for the country’s requirements and together with
chormite and gypsum form the basis of the country’s foreign
exchange earnings through mineral trading.
310
HmoUSTAN TEAE-BOOK
Apart from these major mineral prodncts India’s reserves of the
non-ferrous metallic ores, copper, lead and zine^ are inadequate. _ A
small quantity of copper and a negligible quantitj' of lead are being"
produced. India is also deficient in some other vital minerals such
as nickel, cobalt and sulphur. Large reserves, horvever, are knotvn
to exist (which is the ore of aluminium) and magnesite.
A small quantity of petroleum is being produced at Dighoi in
Assam for a long time. Plans for striking more oil in the region
have recently been finalised. When the oil resources of the north-
eastern region, are fully exploited, it is estimated that about 50 per’
cent of India’s requirements would be met from internal production,
as compared with the present S per cent.
In relation to the needs of her industrialisation, India may be
said to be well-endowed with the basic minerals but deficient in the
auxiliapf minerals. Coal and iron ore are the chief minerals for basic
industrialisation, and it is for these that fairly accurate and detailed
estimates of reserves exists. For most of the others, the estimates
are largely, and admittedly, guess work. Fifty years of the industry
have not helped to enlarge technical efficiency in operating the mines
beyond a small number of them to which it is still largely confined.
While there is no effective conservation on the one hand, working
methods are wasteful on the other. Marginal grades of ores are
either abandoned or thrown away on mine dumps. These have now
to be carefidly recovered. Ores, which it is not possible to work
economically under normal conditions, should be left in the mines
so that they may be extracted at a future date without serious loss.
The short-sighted policy of selective mining of only the high-grade-
ores should be discouraged. .AB grades should be worked and,
wherever possible, blended to produce marketable grades.
The industrialisation that India has embarked upon needs Jn-
tensive development of the auxilary minerals and their processing
with a view to using them within the country. Under the Indus-
trial Policy Resolution of 1956, the exploitation of minerals is the
exclusive responsibility of the State.
New mineral projects that have already been taken in hand in
the public sector are the mining of lignite in South Arcot district of
Madras State and extraction of coal from the Korha coal-field in
Madhya Pradesh. It is estimated that at the end of Second Plan
period, the four steel works in the public sector (Rourekela. Bhilai.
Durgapur and Mysore) and the two in the private sector (TTSCO and
nSCO) win together require about 11 million tons of iron ore a year.
The present annual production of iron ore is less than 5 million tons.
For the production target set for the aluminium industry, the bauxite
required is estimated at about 113,000 tons, whereas the present pro-
duction is about “75,000 tons.
India’s geologists and geophysicists have been active and over
last two years a number of important discoveries hare been made,
white sand suitable for cement has been found in Sladras. PuRer’s
earth in Hyderabad, pyrite deposists in Bihar, calcite in Saurashtra,
■galena in Mysore, iron ore in Orissa and coal in JIadbya Pradesh are
among the many notable mineral deposits located.
INDIAN MINERALS
311
Minerals of Strategic Importance — ^Minerals of strategic and
defence importance can be regarded as adequate in India although
in parts only ; there is a serious deficiency in munition metals like
tungsten, tin, lead, zinc, mercury and also in graphite and liquid
fuels. But in the basic metals, iron, manganese, aluminium, magne-
sium and chromium, the country is well supplied, in the first three
in large excess.
FOUR CATEGORIES OF INDIA’S MINERAL RESOURCES—
The mineral resources of India can be divided into four categories —
(1) minerals of which India’s exportable surplus can
dominate world market, (2) minerals of which the
exportable surplus forms an important factor, (3) minerals
in which it appears that the country is at present self-sustaining
and (4) minerals for which India has to depend largely or
entirely on foreign imports. To the first category belong iron ore,
titanium ore and mica, while the exportable surplus under the second
head includes manganese ores, bauxite, magnesite, refractory
minerals, natural abrasives, steatite, silica, gypsum, monumental
granites, monazite, coumdum and cement materials. In the number
of minerals including coal, aluminium ore, mineral pigments, sodium
salts and alkalies, rare earths, berylium, glass sand, nitrates, zircon
and phosphates, the country is known to be self-sufficient. And
lastly, the following are the minerals for which it has to depend
solely on imports : copper, silver, nickel, petroleum, sulphur, lead,
zinc, tin, flourides, mercury, tungsten, molybdenum, platinum,
graphite, asphalt and potash.
MINES AND MINERALS CONSERVATION— With the achieve-
ment of independence. Government of India felt the great need of sta-
tutory rules for the conservation of mineral wealth and for the regula-
tion and grant of mineral concessions. Thus the Mines and Minerals
(Regulation and Development) Act was passed in September 1948.
The Central Government assumed the responsibility to co-ordinate
the policy of States for mineral development and the issue of leases.
Tlie Central Government is also following an active mineral policy
to control mining and the consumption of minerals of fundamental
and strategic importance.
The Industrial Policy Resolutions of the Government of India
in April G, 1948 and also of 1956 explicitly recognised minerals
amongst the industries whose location must be governed by economic
factors of all-India import or which require considerable investment
or a high degree of technical skill and must consequently be the
subject of Central regulation and control.
GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS— The Ministry of Natural Re-
sources and Scientific Research deals with (1) mines. (2) geological
sun^ey among other subjects. The Geological Survey Department was
founded in 1851 primarily with the object of geological mapping.
This department helps to increase India’s mineral resources. It has
been publishing various technical records and bulletins giving geolo-
gical information on commercial and other minerals. Enquiries from
industrialists are being answered by its information section.
312 HINDUSTAN YEAK-BOOK
The activity of the department is also directed to the compila-
Hon of geological map of India and to the collection and dissemi-
nation of information regarding the mineral resources of the coun^.
The department is responsible for the up-keep and administra-
tion of the geological section of the Indian Museum, Calcutta. _ ,
The following are’ also the important departments concerning
mining in India — , . •
Mineral Information Bureau has been set up in 1948 to give
information and advice to industries. The main function of’ the
Bureau is the dissemination in non-technical language of facts rela-
ting to Indian minerals, fuels, iron ore, ferro-alloy minerals, light
and base metal minerals, precious metals, gems, minerals for
chemical industries, industrial clays, sands and miscellaneous
minerals.
Indian Bureau of Mines was created in 1948 to function as a
body of expert advisers to the Government of India on all matters
relating to mineral development. The Bureau is today_ the chief
national agency for discharging the various duties devolving on the
Central Government under the Mines and Minerals (Regulation and
Development) Act, 1948. Bureau of Mines will have to inspect mines
to effect general improvements in mining methods, plan for the
recovery of the largest possible quantity, to conserve mineral wealth,
eliminate waste in mining, processing and utilization ; use modem
methods of prospecting to locate mineral deposits ; advise Central
and Provincial Governments on questions relating to mineral con-
cessions, royalty rents, taxation, tariff and export policies, pro'vide
analytical and testing facilities for producers of, and traders in
minerals, etc.
This Bureau consists of follo'wing three sections — (1) Mining
Engineering Branch, (2) Mines Inspection Branch, (3) Mineral
Treatment Branch,
Department of Mines — ^This department came into existence in
1902 and is mainly responsible for the Indian Mines Act. Head-
quarters of the department is at Dhanbad. This department is con-
cerned 'with the inspecting of mines, safety of underground workers,
wages, ete., and mining education of the country.
A Mineral Adimory Board was set up during 1953. The Board
•will inter alia re-view the production, distribution, consumption and
export of minerals. It will also advise the Government on the export
and import tariffs on minerals and mineral products.
SCIENTIFIC RESEARTH ON MINES & MINERALS— T/m
Geological Surveg of India, the department that looks after minerals
of India celebrated its first hundred years in 1951. During all these
years, it has not only added materially to our knowledge of minerals
of economic value, and so to the potential and actual w’ealth of the
country, but extended the bounds of research into the science of the
earth.
; During its long history, the Geological Survey has been devoting
its energy in the scientific geological survey of mineral deposits for
the detailed knowledge, of the geology of the different areas with the
estimation of their quantity and quality. Further, geological survey
INDIAN MINERALS
313
has had as one of its main objectives the preparation of a Geological
map of India and except for a few unmapped areas in Orissa, Bastar,
Assam and parts of Himalayas, the geological map of India has now
been completed on one scale to another.
The Department’s work is now organized in three main divisions.
The first consists of the Field Circles, which are responsible for
detailed mapping and for all preliminary investigations of mineral
deposits, water supply and engineering problems. The second con-
sists of the Technical Sections maintained at Calcutta headquarters :
the chemical Petrological, Palaeontological and Palaeobotanical
laboratories, the Geophysical Workshop, the Drawing Ofiice, the
Mineral Information Bureau, the Statistical Section and the sections
responsible for general administration. The third consists of the
Specialist Sections, which are available for work in any part
of India. These sections are responsible for advanced studies in
engineering geology and water supply and Tor detailed testing of
mineral deposits by geophysical methods, drilling or exploratory
mining. These three divisions naturally work in close collaboration.
MINING EDUCATION — The Indian School of Mines and
Applied Geology opened in 1926 at Dhanbad imparts high grade tech-
nical training in Mineral En^neering and_ Applied Geology and offers
a four-year diploma course in these subjects. The school has been
thoroughly reorganised on the recommendations of the Reorganisa-
tion Committee. The new curriculum lays special emphasis on sub-
jects like metallurgy, fuel technology, refractories and ceramics.
A new Faculty of Mining and Applied Geology has been established
at the Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad which will be linked to Bihar
University and will be knov/n as the National School of Mines.
The Dhanbad School of Mines and Applied Geology has been
reorganised to turn out a larger number of technicians every year.
Mining education is also imparted at the Banaras Hindu University
which has a College of Mining and Metallurgy.
GOVERNJIENTS ROLE AND MINERAL POLICY— The Indus-
trial Policy Resolutions of the Government of India published on April
6, 1948 and in 1956 explicity recognised minerals amongst industries
whose location must be governed by economic factors of all-India
import or which require considerable investment or a high degree of
technical skill and must consequently be the subject of central regu-
lation and control.
The Governments’ role in the future development of India’s
mineral wealth was clearly laid down when the Second Five-Year Plan
was begun in April, 1956 and future mineral development will be the
exclusive responsibility of the State in so far as it concerns atomic!
energy minerals, iron and steel, coal and lignite, mineral oils, mining
of iron, manganese, chrome, gypsum, sulphur, gold, diamonds, copper,
lead, tin, zinc, molybdenum and wolfram. All other minerals,
except minor minerals, almunium and other non-ferrous metals not
included in the first category will be progressively ovmed by the State.
In September 1948, Indian Parliament passed the historic
measure — Mines and Minerals {Regulation and Development) Act,
314 HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
1948. The Act applies to all inmerals_, including oil. It extends
to all States, including Centrally-administered areas. It gives powers
to Central Government to frame rules for the regulation of the terms
and conditions of prospecting licences and grant of leases,' for the
conservation and development of minerals, and for the modification
of existing licences and leases on payment of compensation. The
ownership of mines and minerals continued to vest in the States, and
State Governments will continue to grant concession and collect
royalties and rents as hitherto. But this will now be done 'within
the framework of the general control exercised by the centre and
the rules framed by the Central Government.
DESCRIPTION OF MINERALS
COAL — is the most valuable mineral product and India stands
seventh in the world. The bulk of Indian coal is concentrated in one
enormous series of deposits known as “Gondawana system.’ A little
over 98 p.c. of Indian coal is raised from Gondawana' coal beds and
about 2 p.c. from tertiary beds. This system stretches across
Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Central India, Madhya Pradesh and Hyderabad.
The tertiary beds are found in Assam and Rajasthan. A little coal
is produced in Andhra Pradesh. Bengal and Bihar- coalfields
are the sources of the best varieties of coal and it is also the only
source of varieties of coal which can be used directly for metallur-
gical purposes. The coal found, broadly speaking, is of four types,
peat, lignite, bvtu'UiTOov.s, and anthracite. The coal-fields of Bihar
and West Bengal account for about nine-tenths of India’s output.
Jharia and Raniganj are the principal coal-fields and from them
about 70 p.c, of total output is obtained. Jharia coal-fields produce
the best Indian coal. The greater portion of the coal deposits are to
be found in Raniganj, Jharia, Bokaro, Giridih and Karanpura. The
other deposits are to be found in Lakhimpur and Makum in Assam,
Talcher in Orissa, Belarpur, Pench, Mohapani and Korea in Madhya
Pradesh, Singarani in Hyderabad, Bikaner in ^jasthan, Umna in
Madhya Bharat. Large deposits of lignite have recently been re-
ported in the Madras coastal plain.
_ India’s total reserves are estimated at 60,000 million tons of
which about 6,000 million tons are high grade metallurgical coal.
Following important points are to be noted with regard to coal
enterprise in India : (1) The Central Government have declared
the coal industry a public utility service. (2) Per capita production
in India is far lower than in some western countries. (3) Indian
Railways consume the largest amount of coal in India.
India has now nearly 1,000 coal mines. The total output of coal
at present is in the neighbourhood of 34 million tons. Of the total
production Bihar accounts for 55 per cent., Bengal 28 per cent., M.P.
6 per cent., Hyderabad 4 per cent., etc.
A Fuel Research Institute at Diprwadih, near Jharia has been
started in 1949. The function of the Institute is to make survey of
Indian coals and to carry out researches on processing "with, a idew
to manufacturing metallurgical coke and investigation on low-
INDIAN MINERALS
315
temperature carbonisation and tar distillation for dyes, drugs,
plastics, explosive and synthetic liquid fuels.
Stowing in Mines — Stowing is a process in mining operation
particularly in coal mining in which any of the void created by the
extraction of coal is filled with stowing material. The purpose of
such operation is safety to the men working in the mine which pre-
vents premature collapse, surface subsidence, underground fires,
expulsion of inflammable gas from open graves, which might result
in an explosion. In 1941 Coal Mines Stowing Board was formed. It
undertook to supress the fire both in Jharia and Eaniganj coal-fields.
Government of India have appointed a Coal Board to deal with
all problems relating to coal from a comprehensive points of view.
It has enforced the stowing, blending and washing of coking coal.
Coal Board is also taking steps to bring about mechanisation of in-
dustry. Under the Coal Mines (Conservation and Safety) Act, 1952,
the Central Government is empowered (1) to adopt measures for the
safety of coal mines or for conserving coal, (2) to authorise the Coal
Board to deal with problems of the indusfc^, (3) to levy excise duty
on coaband coke, (4) to frame rules for regulating the industry.
MANGANESE — India ranks third in the world in the output
of this mineral. Its chief use is the manufacture of steel. It is also
extensively used in the chemical industry and in making of dry cell
batteries. The manganese mines of Madhya Pradesh contain some
of the best known manganese ore deposits of the world. Deposits
now being worked are in Singhbhum (Bihar), Panchmahal (Bombay),
Balaghat, Bhandara, Chhindwara, Nagpur (Madhya Pradesh), Indore
(Madhya Bharat), Visakhapatnam, Sandur (Madras), Shimoga
(Mysore), Bonai, Keonjhar, Koraput, Patna State (Orissa) and
Banswara (Rajasthan). Madhya Pradesh produces two-thirds of
all-India production. Principal customers of manganese are United
Kingdom, France, U.S.A., Nonvay, Canada and Belgium.
The figures of manganese reserves stand os under : Madhya
Pradesh 100,000,000 tons, Madras/Mysore 2,500,000 tons, Orissa
100,000 tons, Bombay 5,000,000 tons. At present it is being sent
away in foreign countries in its raw state, but now it is being pro-
posed to process and turn it into ferromanganese in India itself.
LIGNITE — is a soft brown type of coal retaining the texture of
wood from which it originated. From it arc obtained a number of
valuable products, among them being petroleum and diesel oils,
waxes and hydrocarbon gases. Lignite quarry is situated at Neiveli
in South Arcot district. It is 24 miles from Cuddolore and about
135 miles south-west of Madras. Lignite, though a member of the
coal family, is different from commonly-used bituminous coal, in that
it contains a relatively high proportion of moisture. In the S. Indian
lignite, the proportion is computed at 30 p.c. to 35 p.c. The success
of this newly-found mineral means much to India as the absence of
coal deposits in the south of India retrads its indusrialisation.
GOLD — stakes the third place which in India, is mined in the State
of Mysore in Kolar where 95 per cent, of India’s output of gold comes.
316
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
India’s production of gold is only about two per cent, of the total
world production (excluding U.S.S.R.). The only other working
mine, Hutti in Hyderabad produces small quantities of gold. Gold-
bearing veins are also known to exist in Dharwar district of Bombay,
Wynaad and Anantpur districts of Madras and at Lowa in the
Manfahum district of Bihar. Alluvial gold is found widely distribu-
ted in many parts of the country — Assam, Bihar, Orissa, Madhya
Pradesh, Bast Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Kashmir and West Bengal,
but the only sources of gold of any type worked are at Kolar and
Hutti.
Kolar Gold Mines Acquisition Act, 1956 has been passed to na-
tionalise the mines. The Act empowers the State Government of
Mysore to acquire the companies, namely, Mysore Gold Mining po.,
(KGF) Ltd., Champion Reef Gold Mines of India, Nandidrug Mines
Ltd., and Kolar Mines Power Station Private Ltd. A total amount
of Rs. 164 lakhs is to be paid as compensation. The gold mines have
been taken over from 29th November, 1956.
MICA — India is the largest producer of muscovite block mica
and mica splittings. She supplies about 80 per cent of the_ world's,
requirements of good quality mica. Over 90 per cent of mica used
in the manufacture of micanite, made from the mica of inferior
quality is also supplied by India. The United States takes nearly
60 to 70 per cent of the total mica e.xperts from India, the second
biggest importer of Indian mica is the United Kingdom. Bihar belt
is the oldest and the most important of the areas produc-
ing mica in India. The best variety of mica, viz., Bengal Ruby mica
comes mostly from the Bihar mines which are scattered over Hazari-
bagh and Gaya districts of Bihar. The second mica belt_ is the
Nellore district of Madras and third belt is Rajasthan, chiefly in
Jaipur and Udaipur. The main use of mica is for the electrical and
technical industries. The next important use of mica is in the shape
of micanite by electrical engineers, colliery companies, manufactures
of iron, steel and electrical apparatus. Waste and scarp mica is
ground and used for wall-paper industry, manufacture of paints,
rubber industry etc.
PETROLEUM — is the last of five important minerals of India.
India contributes only 1.10 per cent, of the world’s production.
India’s consumption of all mineral oil requires annual production of
about 60 lakhs tons of crude oil. Of the requirements only four lakh
tons of crude oil is produced from Digboi, the only oilfield in
India. The rest of India’s oil need is met by importing crude oil and
refining it_ at the refineries recently started near Bombay.
Realising the importance of mineral oil in India’s developing
economy, the Government of India in the last Industrial Policy Reso-
lution of April 30, 1956 have decided that the future developments of
mineral oil will be the responsibility of the State.
Geologists and mining engineers of U.S.S.R. and other European
countries brought out by the Government of India have suggested the
following places for oil exploration — Jwalamukhi and neighbouring
areas in the Punjab, Rajasthan, Ganga Valley, West Bengal and
INDIAN MINERALS
317
Orissa, Cambay, Kutch and some other areas in Madras, Andhra and
Kerala. Recently oil field has been found in Naharhatia, Assam,
where oil is being dug at 10,000 ft, below.
The Government of India signed an agreement with the Standrad
Vacuum Oil Co, Ltd. for joint exploration for petrolium in West
Bengal basin. In addition, departmental exploration for oil was
initiated in 1955-56 in the Jaisalmer area of &jasthan, and a sepa-
rate Directorate of Oil and Natural Gas has been set up to undertake
intensive exploration.
About 74 p.c. of India’s requirements of petrol comes from Persia,
while the indigenous production amounts to 8 per cent. The other
countries from which India gets her petrol are Bahrein Islands, Saudi
Arabia and the Far East. Though there is shortage of petrol pro-
duction in India, Government of India have started oil refiniries in
conjunction %vith the Standard Vacuum Oil Company and with Burma
Shell Group at Trombay, Bombay. Another oil refinery has been
started by Caltex Oil Company at Visakhapatnam.
The Government of India have set up a high power Oil and
’Natural Gas Commission to undertake exploration, exploitation and
refining of mineral oil in the country. The Commission is located at
Debra Dun.
IRON — India possesses some of the world’s largest reserves of
iron ore, mainly haematites and magnetites with iron content ranging
behveen 60 and 70 per cent. Extensive deposits of iron ore occur in
several parts of India, namely, Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, My-
sore and in the adjacent areas of Bonai, Keonjhar and Jlayurbhanj,
which have extent as well as richest in iron content. The e.stimated iron
reserves are as follows ■.—Singhhum and Orissa — 8,000 million tons :
iron Content 60-68 p.c. Drug Dist. (Madhya Pradesh) — 176 million
tons : iron content 60-68 p.c. Chanda District (Madhya Pradesh) —
30 million tons ; iron content 60-68 p.c. Mysore — 150 million tons :
iron contents 55-66 p.c. Madras (Salem District) — 396 million tons ;
iron content 35-40 p.c.=total 9,270 million tons. So it will be seen
that iron content in Indian ore is about 68-7. Few, even amongst
the greatest production countries of the world, can claim a higher
percentage.
SALT — With a coast line of about 3,600 miles, inland sources in
Rajasthan and Little Rann of Kutch and the rock salt mines in Mandi,
India has possiblities of attaining a high position among the salt-pro-
ducing countries of the world. India now claims to be self-sufficient
in all qualities of salt, with the exception of rock variety. In addi-
tion to meeting domestic demands, India now exports salt. Salt is
produced by solar evaporation on almost all the coasts of India, but
particularly on the south-west and near Bombay. The principal salt
producing areas are located in Saurashtra, Madras, Bombay, Rajas-
than, Kutch, Travancore-Cochin and Orissa. Partition left the
Indian -Union with only one source of rock salt — at Mandi in Himachal
Pradesh. Besides the existing model farm and Salt Research Station
at Wadala in Bombay, Central Salt Research Institute was estab-
lished in 1954 at Bhavnagar in Saurashtra under the control ,of the
(iouncil of Scientific and Industrial Research. The principal centres
S18
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
of salt mamafacture are as follows — (1) Marine Salt Works — (a)
Saurasbtra and Kutch (Bhavnagar, Jaffrabad, Jamnagar, Lavanpur,
Porbandar, Bharai and Kandla), (b) Bombay (Dharasana, Bhoyandar,
Bhandup, Uran and Mithapur), (c) Madras (Nanpada, Pennuguduru,
Madras, Cuddalore, Adirampatnam and Tuticorin), (d) Orissa_ (Puri,-
Huma, Gokhurkuda and Sumadi), (e) West Bengal (Contai), (f)
Travancore-Cochin — along the coast, (2) Salt Mines — Salt mines in
Mandi (Himachal Pradesh), (3) Inland Sources — (a) Rajasthan
(Sambhar, Didwana and Pachbadra), (b) Bombay & Saurasbtra
(Kharaghoda and Kuda) and Rann of Kutch.
ILhlENITE — One of the most striking features of India’s mineral
industry is the rapid rise in the production of ilmenite. India has
now become the world’s leading producer of this metal. It is the
•whitest of all substances and wiU replace lead more and more in the
manufacture of white pigment. The mineral occurs along the beach-
sands of 'Travancore and the east and west coasts.
MONAZITE — is available on the beach sands of Kerala State
and also on the beach sands on the Coromondal Coast existing in the
form of beach sands in association with ilmenite and is perhaps the
largest and the richest in thorium in the world and also contains a
small quantity of uranium. In order to conserve supplies for atomic
energy development, exports are now prohibited under see. 3 of the
Atomic Energy Act XXIX of 1948. A factory for processing over
1,500 tons a year of monazite beach sands has been recently set upi
by the Government of India at Always (Kerala).
ORCHES — are well-known as mineral earth pigments. Occur-
ances are fairly widespread in India, chief producing areas being
Madhya Pradesh, Vindhya Pradesh and Saurasbtra. The entire
production is retained for internal consumption.
SALTPETRE — occurs as natural efflorescence in extensive areas
in Bihar, U.P. and East Punjab. Crude saltpetre is used as
manure, while refined saltpetre is consumed in the manufacture of
fire works, blasting-powder, soap and matches and in glass, ceramic
and tanning industries.
ZIRCON — ^is also available on the beach sands of Travancore and
-Cape Comorin. Zircon yields zinconia, a high grade refractory and
also an alloy material.
ZINC — ^Zawar mines in Jodhpur are the only important source of
zinc ore in India and there are sufficient indications to show that
large resources of workable ore may be found here. India’s resources
- are however poor.
BERYL — ^is found in small ^antities in certain rocks which con-
■ tain generally mica mines. India has been a large producer of beryl,
- chiefly from Rajasthan, Madras, Kashmir and Bihar.
CHROMITE — India has only moderate resources of chromite ore.
It is both an alloy and a refractory. According to available data,
India’s known reserves of chromite are approximately 200,000 tons
- of high grade ore, while low grade ore reserves are estimated to be
INDIAN MINERALS
319
several times more. The more important deposits are distributed
as follows — Singhbhum & Bhagalpur (Bihar), Ratnagiri (Bombay),
Salem and Kistna (Madras), Mysore, Hassan, Kadur and Chitaldrug
(Mysore), Keonjhar (Orissa), Ladakh (Kashmir). The deposits are
heing worked at present only in Singhbhum, Keonjhar, Kistna, My-
sore and Hassan districts.
MAGNESITE — is valuable to cement, glass, paper, rubber, cos-
metics, refactories and aircraft industries. India’s magnesite deposits
are in the States of Bihar (Singhbhum), Kashmir, Madras (Salem),
Mysore, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh, Almora. By far the largest
and the best magnesite deposits in India occur in the Salem district
of Madras.
B.A.UXITE — India has vast deposits of good bauxite scattered all
over the country, major occurrences are in the Ranchi and Palamau
districts of Bihar ; Belgaum, Kharia and Thana districts of Bombay ;
State of Kolhapur ; Jabalpur, Balaghat, Mandia and Bilaspur dis-
tricts of Madhya Pradesh ; the States of _Rewa and Bhopal ; Raisi
and Poonch districts of Kashmir ; Salem in Madras and the Balu-
budan hills of Mysore. India’s total bauxite reserves are estimated
at about 250 million tons, but the workable deposits containing over
50 per cent alumina are estimated only at 28 million tons. It is
largely used as filtering material in petroleum refineries and for the
manufacture of alum. High grade bauxite is also used for producing
aluminium.
CEMENT — ^The ingredients of cement are all available in abun-
dance in India. The principal cement producing centres are Por-
bandar in Kathiawar, Katni in M. P., Lakheri in Rajasthan, Jabal-
pur in M.P., Guntur in Madras, etc.
KYANITE — India is the principal producer of Kyanite, the most
important of the minerals used in the refractory and ceramic indus-
tries. Good workable deposits of kyanite occur in Seraikella and
Kharswan in Singhbhum district, Bihar. Smaller deposits are also
known to occur in the Majnirbhanj district of Orissa, in the Nellore
district of Madras and in the Hassan district of Mysore. The
Lapsa Bum deposit of Kharswan is the largest of its kind in the
world and is the principal centre of production.
FELDSPAR — workable occurances of feldspar are located in the
States of Ajmer, Bombay, Bengal, Bihar, M. P., Madras, Mysore,
Rajasthan and Vindhya Pradesh. The entire output is utilised in the
country mainly in the ceramic industry.
COPPER — The principal copper deposits of India, in order of im-
portance, are in the Singhbhum district of Bihar, at Khetri and
Singhana in Jaipur, at Daribo and Kho in Ahvar (Rajasthan), at
Bhotang and Dikehu in Sikkim and in the Guntur, Kurnool and Nellore
districts of Andhra. The only deposits now being worked are those of
Singhbhum. Here the mine is worked by Indian Copper Corporation.
The Company at present mines at Mosaboni and Badia and works
at Moubhandar and is the only _ copper smelter in India. About
370,000 tons of copper ores are being mined annudlly in Singhbhum,
Bihar, but the production meets only a fraction of India’s demands.
320 HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
LIMESTONE — ^used principally for the manufacture • of cement
and for constructional purposes and also as a flax in melting of iron
and lead ores, is found in Rhotasgarh in Sahabad district of Bihar, at
Katni in M.P., in Bundi, Jodhpur, Sirohi in Rajasthan, in Rewah and
Mahiar State of Madhya Bharat.
TUNGSTEN (WOLFRAM) — ^is known to occur in a few localities
in West Bengal, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Madras and Rajasthan. Of
these only the deposits at Degana in Rajasthan are promising.
BENTONITE — is a valuable clay similar in its properties to
fuller’s earth. It occurs in limited quantities in Rajasthan, Bihar
and Kashmir.
GYPSUM — Gypsum sources in India have been estimated at 85-5
million tons, lying in Bikaner and Jodhpur (Rajasthan), Trichinopoly
(Madras), Saurashtra and Himachal Pradesh. Large quantities of
gypsum have recently been discovered in Jamsar (Rajasthan) and
Ran (Saurashtra), Gypsum is extensively used in cements and
plasters, as paints and filters and as “top-dressing” in agriculture.
SULPHUR — There are no knowm deposits of elemental sulphur
in India. Reports of occurrences in Assam and Ladakh (Kashmir)
require geological investigation. Assam coal is said to have a high
sulphur content. It was reported recently that the Fuel Research
Institute at Digwadih has found Rewa coal also rich in sulphur.
STEATITE — is also known as soap-stone, pot-stone, talc and in
its powdered from as ‘fresh chalk.’ It is one of the most variously
used industrial minerals. It is available in Rajasthan and Madras.
VANADIUM — Singhbhum and Mayurbhanj hold unexploited
reserves of 2-3 million tons of Vanadium.
SILLIMANITE — is a mineral of rare occurrence which is used in
the manufacture of furnace lining in the iron and steel and glass and
ceramic _ industry. It is almost a monopoly of India. Deposits of
sillimanite are known to occur in Assam, Madhya Pradesh and Rewa.
The largest concentration of sillimanite being in the Khasi hills where
the known reserves exceed lakh tons.
CLAYS — India has abundant sources of clays which are dis-
tributed in almost every state of the country. Besides the deposits
of China clay, those of fire clay and other clays- are also widespread.
Deposits of China clay occur and are worked in Bihar, Assam, Bom-
bay, Hyderabad, Madras, Mysore and Travancore. The Travancore
deposits are most important. The cotton ■ textile industry is the
principal user of China clay in India. The entire production of clays
in India is used for internal consumption in the manufacture of
pottery, building bricks, cement, soap and for colour washing.
PYRITES — the deposits of pyrites from which sulphur could be
obtained exists at Amjor (Bihar), Wynaad (Madras), Ingladhal
(Mysore) and Tara Devi (Simla. Hills). But no detailed estimates
are available of the quantities of pyrites in the deposits.
CORUNDUM — ^In addition to the working ' mines in Hassan and
Mysore districts (Mysore) and Rewa (Vindhya Pradesh), Corundum
INDIAN MINERALS
321
deposits are also known to occur in Khasi Hills (Assam) and South
Kanara and Salem districts of Madras. The mineral is chiefly used
as an abrasive.
FULLER’S EARTH — ^is chiefly obtained from Bikaner and
Jodhpur in Rajasthan and a little is also obtained in M. P. Entire
production is used for internal consumption.
GRAPHITE — occurs in small quantities in various parts of India,
namely Ajmer, Hyderabad, Madhya Pradesh, Madras, Mysore, Orissa
and Travancore. During recent years deposits have been worked in
Madhya Pradesh, Mysore and Orissa only. The quantity produced
falls short of the total requirements by about 25 p.c. which is met
by imports. The mineral is mainly used in foundry, pencil and
paint industry in India.
ANTIMONY — ^There are small deposits of antimony in Lahalul
(Kangra district. East Punjab) and at Shagor in Chitral State. The
production is confined to one plant — Star Metal Refinery, Bombay.
LEAD — ^Lead deposits now being exploited in India are located at
Zawar in Udaipur and at the Banjavi mines in Jaipur. These are
now under lease to the Metal Corporation of India.
TITANIUM — The most important deposits of titanium minerals
worked in India lies in Travancore on the south-west coast, in five
stretches along the coast — ^Nindakara (north of Quilon), Anjengo-
Varkala (south of Quilon), Kovilam (south of Trivandrum), Muttam-
pudur (near Colachel) and Cape Comorin-Liparum (on the eastern
coast of Tinnevelly district). Recentl^r titanium has attained per-
haps the highest importance as strategic material because the metal
and its alloys have been found to have better qualities than the
strongest steels and yet are lighter in weight than those steels.
APATITE — only a small output of apatite is obtained from
Singhbhum in Bihar and Trichinopoly in Madras. The entire pro-
duction of the country is used for manures which is estimated to
meet only 5 per cent of the country’s requirements of phosphatic
manures, the balance being imported.
ASBESTOS — ^India has a limited resources of asbestos mainly
in Andhra, Bihar, Mysore and ifejasthan. Of the two chief varieties
found in India, the chrysolite asbestos which is the flexible variety
amenable to spinning and hence more valuable, is found in Cuddapah
(Andhra), while other deposits :^eld_the tremolite type which is less
flexible. India is deficient in this mineral.
BARYTES — ^The mineral is used mainly in the paint and petro-
leum industry in India. The production is only reported from
Andhra. The mineral is also reported to occur in Alway (Rajas-
than), Manbhum and Singhbhum (Bihar) and Gangapur (Orissa).
PRECIOUS STONES — Actual diamons mines are in Panna in
Vindhya Pradesh over an area of 760 sq. miles. Geologically,
the rock formation i-escmbles that Kimberly, South Africa and
Russian experts who visited the mining area recently reported that
a daily output of 1,895 corats could be expected when the mines
21
322
HINDUSTAN TEAK-BOOK
are fully mechamsed. Sapphires of a very clear blue colour are
obtained in Kasbmir at an altitude of 14,000 ft. Garnets of a rich
deep purplish red are found in Barwar District in Kishengarh State
and the adjoining tracks of Jaipur State. Emeralds are chiefiy
obtained from Udaipur • (Rajasthan) and from Ajmer.
SIINERAL PRODUCTION OF INDIA
Cl
O
c
o§
2 S
** c
o
Mam
nose
(000 tc
® s
o
o
o
ZS
MS
c5 •
s'-'«
1948
180,430
526
322,282
229,416
3,16,28
1949
164,204
646
329,304
308,180
3,00,31
1950
196,925
883
360,308
212,663
4,14,79
1951
226,364
1,292
369,057
224,084
3,90,65
1952
253,264
1,462
324,634
224,895
3,44,45
1953
223,375
1,902
238,010
215,259
3,89,50
1954
239,168
1,414
342,750
240,513
4,00,00
151^73
151,709
162,447
200,439
152,204
128,492
103,381
(MoTithlv Abstract of Statistics, Sept. 1956).
Coal
Alumifiium
Copper
Leed
(000 tons)
(tons)
(tons)
(tons)
1950
31,992
2,696.4
6,614.4
627.6
1951
34,308
3,848.4
7,083.6
859.2
1952
36,228
3,566.4
6,079.2
1,131.6
1953
35,844
3,758.4
4,920.0
1,694.4
1954
36,768
4,886.4
7.171.2
1,788.0
1955
38,208 •
7,225.2
2,281.6
2,234.4
{Jonrnal of Industry & Trade, 1956).
UNITED NATIONS
ORIGIN — ^The necessity for forming an United Nations Orga-
nization was first discussed at Dumbarton Oaks, Washington D. C.
August 21 — Oct. 7, 1944. It was finally put to concrete shape by
the delegates of 50 Allied Nations assembled at San Francisco from
April 25 to June 26, 1945 where representatives of 50 nations signed
the United Nations Charter. The U. N. officially came into exis-
tence on October 24, 1945.
PURPOSES OP U. N. — ^Four purposes of the U. N. are — (1)
to maintain international peace and security, (2) to develop friendly
relations among nations, (3) to co-operate internationally in solving
international economic, social, cultural and humanitarian problems
and in promoting respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms
and (4) to be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations in
attaining these common ends.
FINANCE — ^The United Nations is financed by the contribu-
tions from member States. Member States contribute to the expen-
ses of the budget and Working Capital Fund on a scale determined
by the General Assembly each year on the recommendation of its
Committee on Contributions.
OFFICIAL LANGUAGES — ^The official languages of the U. N,
are Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish. Its working
languages are English and French. Spanish is also the working
language of the General Assembly.
Mc 7 nbcrfi/up— Membership of the United Nations is open to all
peace-loving nations which accept the obligations of the U.N. Charter
and, in the judgement of the Organisation, are able and willing to carry
out these obligations. The original members of the United Nations
are those countries which signed the Declaration of the United Nations
on Jan. 1, 1942 or took part in the San Francisco Conference and
which signed and ratified .the Charter. Other countries can be
admitted by the General Assembly upon the recommendation by the
Security Council.
Afganistan
Albania
Argentina
Australia
Austria
Belgium
Bolivia
Brazil
Bulgaria
Members Of The United Nations
Burma
Byelorussian SSR
Cambodia
Canada
Ceylon
Chile
Cuba
Czechoslovakia
China
Colombia
Costa Rica
Dominician Republic
Denmark
Equador
Egypt
El Salvador
Etheopia
Finland
326
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
must abstain from voting in any decision in a dispute to •which it is
a party. On question of procedure, a decision is by the affirma-
tive vote of any seven members.
The Security Council has “primary responsibility for the main-
tenance of international peace and security.”
Permanent Members — China, France, USSR, United Kingdom,
United States.
Non-Permanent Member's — Australia (Until 1958), Iraq, Cuba
(until 1958), Sweden, Columbia, Yugoslavia (until 1958).
SuBsiDiAEY Organs of the Security Council
1. Military Staff Committee — Consists of the Chiefs of Staff of
the permanent members of the Security Council or their representa-
tives. It advises and assists the Security Council on its military
requirements for maintaining international peace and security, the
employment and command of forces placed at its disposal, the regu-
lation of armaments and possible disarmament.
2. Disarmament Commission •was directed to prepare proposals
to be embodied in a draft treaty for the regulation, limitation and
balanced reduction of all armaments and armed forces.
3. ECONOBIIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL— Consists of eighteen
members of the U.N. elected by the General Assembly, six of which
are elected each year for a term of three years. The Economic and
Social Council is directed to work for higher standards of Imng
and full employment ; the solution of international, economic, social
and health problems ; international cultural and educational co-opera-
tion ; and universal respect for, and observance of, human rights
and fundamental freedoms.
Tlie Council works through Corhmissions and Committees — (1)
Transport and Communications Commission ; (2) Statistical Commis-
sion ; (3) Popidation Commission ; (4) Social Commission (6) Com-
mission on Hivman Rights ; (6) Commission on the status of women ;
(7) Commission on Narcotic Drugs ; (8) Commission ori International
Commodity Trade.
There is also a Sub-Commission, that on Prevention of Discrimi-
nation and Protection of Minorities.
Three Regional Commission have also been established — ^Eco-
nomic Commission for Europe, Economic Commission for Asia and
the Far East and Economic Commission for Latin America.
4. TRUSTEESHIP SYSTEM — An ’ International Trusteeship
System has been set up by the' members of the U. N. for the adminis-
tration of territories placed under U.N. supervision through indm--
dual Trusteeship Agreements.
The Trusteeship System, can apply to territories formally held
under the League of Nations mandate ; taken from enemy States as
an outcome of the Second World War ; and others voluntarily placed
under the Trusteeship ' System.
The present membership consists of (a) Administering coun-
tries — ^Australia, Belgium, Prance, New Zealand, United Kingdom,
UNITED NATIONS
327
U.S.A. and Italy ; (b) other countries — China, El Salvador, Haiti
India, U.S.S.R. Burma, Syria and Guatemala.
Trusteeship territories — (1) New Guinea {Australia), (2) Ru-
anda-Urundi {Belgium), (3) French Cameroons and French Togo-
land {France), (4) "Western Samoa {New Zealand), (5) British
Cameroons, British Togoland, Tangan 3 dka {United Kingdom), Nauru
{Australia), (6) Somaliland {Italy), (7) The Territory of the
Pacific Islands composed of the former Japanese-mandated islands of
Marshalls, Marianas (with the exception of Guam) and Carolines is
a strategic Trust Territory administered by the United States of
America under the agreement approved by the Security Council in
April, 1947.
5. INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE— It is the prin-
cipal judicial body of the United Nations. It is a Court of Law and
deals with legal questions only, not with political disputes. AH
countries which are parties to the Statute of the Court can refer to
it any case they wish. In addition. Security Council may refer a
legal dispute to the Court and all organs of the U.N. can ask the
Court for an advisory opinion on any legal question.
The Court consists of fifteen Judges elected by the General
Assembly and the Security Council voting independently. The
Judges are chosen on the basis of their qualifications, not on the basis
of their nationality. Care is taken, however to see that the principal
legal systems of the world are represented in the Court. No two
judges can bo nationals .of the same State.
The seat of the International Court of Justice is'Tit the Hague,
the Netherlands.
6. SECRETARIAT — is composed of the Secretary-General, who
is the chief administrative officer of the Organisation and an inter-
national staff appointed by him under regulation established by the
General Assembly. The Secretary-General is appointed for a term
of five years.
SPECIALISED AGENCIES OF THE U. N.
The Specialised Agencies are organisations established by
inter-govemmental agreements and having wide responsibilities in
economic, social, cultural, educational, health and related fields.
Agreements brining them into relationship with the United Nations
are negotiated with the agencies by a standing committee of the
Economic and Social Council, the Committee on Negotiations with
Inter-Govemmental Agencies and are approved by the Council and
General Assembly and by the appropriate organ of the agency con-
cerned. The agreements with the following agencies are in force —
International Labour Organisation (ILO). 2. Food and Agriculture
Organisation of the U.N. (FAO). 3. United Nations Educational;
Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO). 4. International
Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO). 6. International Bank of Re-
construction and Development (“Bank”). 6. Inter natio nal Monetary
Fund (“Fund”). 7. World Health Organisation (WHO). 8. Uni-
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
328
versal Postal Union (UPU). 9. International Telecoramimication
Union (ITU). 10. World Meteorolo^cal Organisation (WMO).
Agreements •with above ten specialised agencies are novr in force.
It is proposed to bring the Intemational Trade Organisation (ITO)
and the Inter-Gov emmental Maritime Consultive Organisation
(IMCO) into relationship when they are fully constituted and in
operation.
INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANISATION— I. L. 0. was
established in 1919 as an autonomous institution associated -with
the League of Nations. It is a tripartite organisation, in wHch Gov-
ernment, employees and workers are directly represented. It seeks
through international action to improve labour conditions, raise living
standards, and promote economic and social stability. In 1946 U. N.
and I. L. 0. concluded an agreement imder which I. L. 0. was recog-
nised as specialised body of U. N.
I.L.O.’s machinery consists of (1) A General Conference
which is I.L.O.’s highest authority. It is the policy making autho-
rity of the organisation. It meets annuaUy and is composed
of national delegations comprising two government delegates and one
deleg:ate each representing management and labour. The chief func-
tion of the Conference is to formulate intmational social standards
in the form of conventions. (2) Governing body composed of 40
members ; 20 representing Governments, ten representing manage-
ment and ten representing labour. Governing Body supervises the
work of the International Labour Office and the Organisations various
Committee and Commissions. (3) International Labour Office is the
secretariat of the I.L.O. Head Office : Geneva, Switzerland.
FOOD AND -\GRICULTURE ORGANISATION OF THE UNI-
TED NATIONS (FAO.) — ^The chief aims of F-A.O. are (1) to help
nations raise the standard of living, (2) to improve nutrition of the
peoples of all countries, (3) to increase the efficiency of farming,
forestry and fisheries, (4) to better the condition of rural people and,
through all these means, to widen the opportunity of aU people for
productive work. F-A.O. was founded in October 16, 1945. Head-
quarters : Wale deUe Terme Di Caracalla, Rome, Italy.
UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL. SCIENTIFIC .\ND CUL-
TURAL ORGANISATION (UNESCO) — ^‘The purpose of the orga-
nisation” declares Article I of the UNESCO constitution, “is to contri-
bute to peace and security by promoting coUaboration among the
nations through education, science and culture in order to fmrther
universal respect for justice, for rule of law and for the human
rights and fundamental freedoms, which are affirmed for the peoples
of the world without distinction of race, sex, language or religion by
the Charter of the United Nations.’' It was established on 4th Nov.,
1946. Office : Unesco House, 19, Avenue Kleber, Paris 16, France.
INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANISATION
(ICAO) — ^is designed to solve the problem of international civil
aviation and establishment of international standards and regulations
for civil aviation. It encourages the use of safety measures, uniform
UNITED NATIONS
329
regulations for operation, and simpler procedures at international
borders. It promotes the use of new technical methods and equip-
ment. It was established on 4th April, 1947. Headquarters ;
International Aviation Building, Montreal, Canada.
INTERNATIONAL BANK FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND
DEVELOPMENT (BANK) — ^was established in Dec. 27, 1945 when
28 nations signed Articles of Agreement drawn up at Bretton Woods
Conference in July 1944, The purpose of the Bank is to assist in
reconstruction and development of territories of members by facili-
tating the investment of capital for productive purposes ; to promote
private foreign investment ; to promote the balanced growth of
international trade.
INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND (FUND)— was estab-
lished in Dec. 27, 1945 when nations whose quatas amounted to 80
p.c. of Fund’s resources had signed Articles of Agreement drawn up
at Bretton Woods. The purpose of the Fund is to promote inter-
national monetary co-operation and expansion of international trade ;
to promote exchange stability, to assist in establishment of multi-
lateral system of payments in respect of current transactions between
members. Headquarters : 1818 H. Street, Washington 25, D.C.
WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION (WHO)— The constitution
of the WHO defines health as a “state of complete physical, mental
and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or in-
firmity,” It sets down as the objective of this Organisation “the
attainment of all peoples of the highest possible level of health.” Its
services are of two kinds — advisory and technical. It came into
being on April 7, 1948. Headquarters : Palais des Nations, Geneva,
Switzerland.
UNIVERSAL POSTAL UNION (UPU)— Its purpose is to
alleviate the uncertainty, confusion and excessive cost of interna-
tional postal communications by uniting its member-countries in a
single postal territory for the reciprocal exchange of mail. Its aim
is to insure the organisation and improvement of postal services
throughout the world through international collaboration.
Thus every member agrees to transmit the mail of all other
members by the best means used for its own mail.
It was established in 1874 by Universal Postal Convention of
Berne, Switzerland. Headquarters ; Berne, Switzerland.
INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION (ITU)—
Its purposes are to set up international regulations for telegraph,
telephone and radio services to further their development and extend
their utilization by the public at the lowest possible rates.
It was established on Jan. 1934 by the Intemational Telecommu-
nication Convention adopted by the Madrid Conference on Dec. 9,
1932 which amalgamated the International Telegraph Union (founded
1866) and the group of countries signatory or adherent to the vari-
ous radio telegraph conventions beginning with that of Berlin (1906).
Hcadqtiarfers : Palais Wilson, Geneva, Switzerland.
330
HINDUSTAN YEAR-BOOK
WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANISATION (WMO)—
organisation as stated in the preamble to its convention, is establish-
ed -with a view to co-ordinating, standardising and improving world
meteorological activities and to encouraging an efficient^ exchange of
meteorological information between coimtries in the aid of human
activities.
The WMO came into existence on March 23, 1950.
Headquarters : 14 Avenue de la Paix, Geneva, Switzerland.
. INTER-GOITERNMENTAL MARITIME CONSULTIVE ORGA-
NISATION (IMCO ) — {Not yet in existanee) This organisation when
it comes into being — ^wdll provide inter-governmental co-operation
concerning all matters related to international shipping ; to encour-
age the highest standards of maritime safety and efficiency of navi-
gation ; to promote the availability of shipping services to the com-
merce of the world without discrimination ; to consider unfair res-
trictive protection by shipping concerns, not come into being when 21
nations, of which 7 must each have a total tonnage of at least one
million gross tons of shipping have become parties to convention
drawn up by U.N. Maritime Conference at Geneva 1948.
INTERNATIONAL ‘ TRADE ORGANISATION GENERAL
AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE (ITO-GATT)— The
need for some form of international control ih the field of interna-
tional trade was generally acknowledged. Intention was that a
specialised agency dealing with international trade, when brought
into existence, would help to expand the world trade and lead to
higher standards of life. It would abolish or minimise the various
kinds of artificial barriers to trade and would lower the tariffs and
would ensure marketing arrangements. To fulfil this need a draft
charter for an International Trade Organisation was completed in
1948. But the Organisation has not yet been brought into existence
and there is considerable delay to rectify it. Meanwhile an inter-
national commercial treaty had beed drawn up by 34 nations. This
treaty known as General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
has brought unprecedented results in lowering and stabilizing the
tariffs among its 34 members. Through the operation of GATT,
there has been three tariff conferences at which countries represent-
ing nearly four-fifths of world trade have reduced or frozen their
teriffs on some 58,000 items. When the organisation is established,
it is to be brought into relationship with the United Nations.
U. N. Information Centre in India — U. N. Information Centi-e.
Theatre Communications Building, Connaught Place, Queen’s Way.
New Delhi 1. Area Covered — ^Burma, Ceylon, India.
SPORTS SECTION
INDIAN CRICKET
Foreign Teams in India
G. F. Vernon’s Team — (1889-90). Played 12 ; won 10 ; lost 1 and
drawn 1. Captain— G. F. Vernon.
Lord Hawke’s Team — (1892-93). Played 23 ; won 15; lost 2
and drawn G. Captain — ^Lord Hawke.
Oxford Unirersity Anthentics — (1902-3). Played 19 ; won 12 ;
lost 2 and drawn 5. Captain — ^K. J. Key.
M. C. C. Official Team — (1925-26). Played 34 ; won 11 ; drawn
23 and lost none. Captain — A. E. R. GiUigan.
All-Ceylon Team (1932-33) — Played 10 ; won 2 ; lost 1 ; drawn 7.
Captain — Dr. C. H. Gunasekara.
M. C. C. Team (1933-34) — ^Played 34 ; won 17 ; drawn 16 and
lost 1. Captain — D. R. Jardine.
Australian Team (Unofficial 1935-36) — Played 23 ; won 11 ; lost
3 ; drawn 9. Captain — J. Ryder.
Lord Tennyson’s Team (1937-38) — Played 24 ; won 8, lost 5 and
drawn 11. Captain — ^Lord Tennyson.
Second All-Ceylon Team (1940-41) — ^Played 5 ; won 1 ; lost 1 ;
dravm 3. Captain — S. S. Jayawikrama.
Australian Services XI (1945-46) — ^Played 9 ; won 1 ; lost 2 ;
drawn 6, Captain — A. L. Hasset.
West Indies Team (1948-49) — ^Played 17 ; won 6 ; lost 1 ; drawn
11. Captain — John Goddard.
1st Commonwealth Team (1949-50) — ^Played 19 ; won 8 ; lost 2 ;
drawn 9. Captain — L. Livingstone.
2nd Commonwealth Team (1950-51) — ^Played 25 ; drawn 13 ;
won 12 ; played 5 unofficial Test matches, won 2, drawn 3. Captain —
L. E. G. Ames.
M.C.C. Team (1951-52) — Played 18 ; won 7 ; lost 1 ; drawn 10 ;
Test match played 5 ; won 1 ; lost 1 ; drawn 3. Captain — ^N. D.
Howard.
Pakistan Team (1952) — ^Played 12 ; won 1 ; lost 2 ; drawn 9.
Captain — ^A. H. Kardar.
Silver Jubilee Overseas Cricketers’ Team (1953-54) — Played 21 ;
won 3 ; lost 5 and drawn 13.
New Zealand Team (1955-56) — Played 10 ; won 2 ; lost 3 ;
drawn 5.
Australian Team (1956) — played 3 ; won 2 ; lost 0 ; drawn 1.
Indian Teams Abroad
First Parsi Team in England (1886) — Played 28 ; won 1 ; lost 19;
drawn 8. Captain — ^Patel.
Second Parsi Team (1888) — Played 31 ; won 8 ; lost 11 ; drawn
12. Captain — P. D. Kanoa.
332 HINDUSTAN YEAE-BOOK
Maharaja of Patiala’s Team in England (1911)— Played 23 ;
won 6 ; lost 15 ; drawn 2. CJaptain — Maharaja of Patiala.
All India Team in England (1932) — ^Played 36 ; won 13 ; lost 9 ;
drawn 14. Captain — ^Maharaja of Porhandar.
All India Team in England (1936) — Played 31 ; won 5 ; lost 13 ;
drawn 13. Captain — Maharajakumar of Vijianagrain.
All India Team in Ceylon (1945) — ^Played 5 ; won 2 ; lost 0 ;
drawn 3. Captain — V. M. Merchant.
All India Team in England (1946) — ^Played 33 ; won 13 ; lost 4 ;
drawn 16. Claptain — ^Nawab of Pataudi.
All India Team in Australia (1947-48) — ^Played 19 ; won 4 ; lost
7 ; drawn 8. Captain — Lala Amamath.
All India Team in England (1952) — ^Played 38 ; won 6 ; lost 8 ;
drawn 24; Test match played 4 ; won 0 ; lost 3 ; drawn 1. Captain —
V. S. Hazare.
All India Team in West Indies (1953) — ^Played 11 ; lost 1 ; won
1 ; drawn 9. Captain — V. S. Hazare.
All India Team in Pakistan (1954-55) — ^Played 14; won 5; drawn 9.
Official Test Matches
India v. England
Match played
Eng.won
India won
Draion
1932 In England
.. 1
1
0
0
1933-34 In India
.. 3
2
0
1
1936 In England
.. 3
2
0
1
1946 In England
.. 3
1
0
2
1951-62 In India
.. 5
1
1
3
1952 In England
.. 4
3
0
1
19
10
1
8
India v.
Australia
Match played Aust. won
India won
Drawn
1947-48 In Australia . . 5
4
0
1
1956 In India
.. 3
2
0
1
India v. West Indies
Match playec
W. Indies
India won
Drawn
won
1948-49 In India
.. 6
1
0
4
1953 In W. Indies . . 5
1
0
4
10
2
0
8
India v.
Pakistan
Match played Pakistan won
India won
Dragon
1952 In India
.. 5
■ 1
2
2
1954-65 In Pakistan
.. 6
0
0
5
10
1
2
7
SPORTS SECTION
333
India V. Neto Zealand
Match played N.Zealand won India won Drawn.
1955-56 In India ..5 0 2 3
INDIA’S TEST RECORD
Hiyliest total — By India ; 498 (4 wkts. Dec.) v. New Zealand,
Hyderabad, 1955.
— Against India : 674 by Australia, Adelaide, 1947.
Individual Score — ^Por India : 231 Mankad, v. New Zealand, Calcutta,
1955. — Against India : 217 Hammond (England), Oval, 1936.
Lowest Total — By India : 58 v. England, Manchester 1952 ; 58 v.
Australia, Brisbane 1947.
— Against India : 107 Australia, Sydney 1947.
Century on 1st Appearance — 118 L. Amarnath v. England, Bombay,
1933
110 b. H. Shodhan v. Pakistan, Cal. 1952.
100 Kiipal Singh v. New Zealand, Hyderabad, 1955.
Highest stand for any wicket in India — India v. New Zealand :
Mankad (231) and P. Roy (173) =404.
CRICKET CHAMPIONSHIP OF INDIA
Winners of Ranji Trophy
[A gold cup presented by the Maharaja of Patiala in memory
of the famous Indian Cricketer, Prince Ranjitsingji.']
1934*35 Bombay
1935- 36 Bombay
1936- 37 Nawanagar
1937- 38 Hyderabad
1938- 39 Bengal
1939- 40 Maharashtra
1940- 41 Maharashtra
1941- 42 Bombay
1942- 43 Baroda
1943- 44 Western India
1944- 45 Bombay
1946-46 Holkar
1946- 47 Baroda
1947- 48 Holkar
1948- 49 Bombay
1949- 50 Baroda
1960-51 Holkar
1951-62 Bombay
1963-54 Bombay
1954- 55 Madras
1955- 56 Bombay
Ranji Trophy Records
Great Totals
912 — Holkar v. Mysore for 8
wickets, 1945-46.
826 — hlaharashtra v. Western
India States, 1948.
798 — Maharashtra v. Northern
India, 1940.
784 — ^Baroda v. Holkar, 1946.
764 — ^Bombay v. Holkar, 1944.
760 — ^Bengal v. Bombay, 1951-62.
757 — ^Holkar v. Hyderabad, 1960.
735 — Bombay v. Maharashtra,
1943.
725 — ^Bombay v. Maharashtra for
8 -wickets, 1950.
714 — Do Do for
8 wickets, 1948.
675 — Maharashtra v. Bombay,
1940.
658 — S. Punjab v. N. India for
8 wickets, 1945.
651 — ^Bombay v. Maharashtra,
1941.
650 — Maharashtra v. Baroda for
9 wickets, 1949.
645 — Bombay v. Baroda, 1945.
638 — Bombay v. Sind for 8
wiclcets, 1947.
632 — Bombay v. Maharashtra for
7 wickets, 1947.
334
HINDUSTAN TEAR-BOOK
Banji Trophy Records — {Concld.)
Highest partnership record for
any wicket — By Giil Mahomed
(319) and Hazare (254 not
out) {Jfth wicket partnership)
— 577 runs for Baroda v.
Holkar, 1946-47 {World
Record).
Most centuries in an innings — 6
centuries by Holkar v. My-
sore, 1945-46 — a world record.
Highest aggregate in one iw-
nings — 1325 runs by Maha-
rashtra V. Bombay at Poona
(1941-42).
Lowest Victory — By one run,
Bengal v. Bihar (1941-42).
Smallest Total — 22 runs, S.
Punjab V. N. India (1934).
Lowest innings total : 22 (S.
Punjab) V. Uttar Bharat,
Amritsar, 1934.
Most centuries in d match : 9,
Bombay (5) v. Maharashtra
(4), Poona, 1948-49 {World
Record).
Highest match aggregate : 2376
for 38 wickets (Bombay v.
Maharashtra at Poona, 1948-
49 ) — World Record.
Highest Individual Scores in the Ranji Trophy
*443 — B. B. Nimbalkar (Maha-
rashtra) V. Western Indian
States (1948-49).
*359 — V. M. Merchant (Bombay)
V. Maharashtra (1943-44).
319 — Gul Mahomed (Baroda)
against Holkar (1946-47).
*316 — V. S. Hazare (Maha-
rashtra) against Holkar
(1944-45).
288 — ^Hazare (Baroda) against
Holkar (1946-47).
278 — V. M. Merchant (Bombay)
against Holkar (1944-45).
*249 — D. Compton (Holkar)
(1944-45).
246 — D. B. Deodhar (Maha-
rashtra) against Bombay
. (1940-41).
*245 — R. S. Modi (Bom.) against
Baroda (1944-45).
*234 — V. M. Merchant (Bombay)
against Sind (1945-46).
233— S. Mustaq Ali (Holkar)
against U. P.
217 — V. M. Merchant (Bombay)
against W. India (1944).
217 — V. M. Merchant (Bom.)
against Hyderabad (1947).
*230 — K. C. Ibrahim (Bom.)
against N.-W. India
(1941-42).
Rohinton Baria Inter-University Cricket
{.Gold cup presented hy Mr. A. D. Baria of Bombay to perpetuate
the memory of his son, Rohinton Baria who died at an early age.)
1935-37 Punjab Univ. ; 1938-42 Bombay Univ. ; 1943 Punjab
Univ. ; 1944-49 Bombay Univ. ; 1950-51 Mysore Univ. ; 1952 Bombay
Univ. ; 1953 Delhi Univ. ; 1954 Bo